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FROM MY LIBRARY 
JBooJ^jVumBer _ 














* 

. 





















It used to be thought that volcanoes were simply mountains with holes in them, like big guns 
through which the internal fire spouted up. It is now known that volcanoes build their own mountains 
and that every volcanic mountain at some time rose out of a relatively level surface, much as ants 
build sand craters through cracks in a sidewalk. Fig. (1) shows lava deposited by a former erup¬ 
tion, (2) the original strata. Water sinking down to the fire reservoir (3) makes the steam of an 
eruption. (4) is rock which, although very hot, is not molten because of the pressure above it. At 
(5) the pressure has been released owing to the arching of the layer above, so the rock becomes 
molten and out it spouts! 






^ PICTURED 

KNOWLEDGE 


THE NEW METHOD OF 
VISUAL INSTRUCTION APPLIED TO 
ALL SCHOOL SUBJECTS 


Dedicated to Our Boys and Girls 


VOL. II 


EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

CALVIN N. KENDALL 

Commissioner of Education of the State of New Jersey 


ASSOCIATE EDITOR 

MRS. ELEANOR ATKINSON 


The How and Why LibraryGreyfriars Bobby 
Appleseed," The Boyhood of Lincoln ” 


Johnny 


DIRECTOR OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 

A. W. ABRAMS , 

Chief, Division of Visual Instruction, Department of Education 
of the State of New Dork 


COMPTON-JOHNSON COMPANY 
COMPTON - McGOWEN CO. 

CHICAGO 

























j \ &. \ds 

\°i 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


Copyright, 1916, by F. E. Compton & Company 
Copyright, 1917, by F. E. Compton & Company 
Copyright, 1919, by F. E. Compton & Company 



Uci 29 1919 


©ci. a 5 a 6 a 7 o 


/ Vvo ^ 



E can now travel in any land, in any 
season, or among any tribe or 
race, snugly ensconced, with a few 
illustrated, books, by our own fire¬ 
place. The limit and range of 
what pictures can do is steadily 
increasing. One can know many 
of the vast new world of the micro¬ 
scope and telescope without ever looking through an 
eye glass. It would be a curious question for the 
imaginative mind to work out how far an education 
based upon a wise selection and proper gradation of 
pictures might today be carried without the ability 
to read. If all written or printed records of the 
present time should be lost it is surprising to reflect 
how much of what makes life interesting could be 
reproduced by pictures alone. Seeing is not only 
believing, but understanding, and a single judicious 
picture or blackboard drawing often tells in a 
moment what it would take paragraphs to describe, 
if indeed words could ever give it at all. 

G. Stanley Hail 





..........Jim . . . . .mum. . . . 

The Man Who Conquered the Mosquito 



<fi) Underwood & Underwood 


“He is a strongly built man, with a kindly smile and twinkling eyes. And how 
sweet and human he is.” 


440 



SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 



Colonel Gorgas and the Little Terror 
of the Isthmus 


How Science and Diplomacy Defeated 
the Deadly Mosquito With Its Poison 
Bearing Darts 


ffTTELLO Central! Give me 
A the Sanitary Commission. 
Hello! Is this the Health Of¬ 
fice? There’s a mean, blood¬ 
thirsty mosquito in my house. 
Send an officer, pleased’ 

Where Policemen Arrest Mosquitoes 

Such nonsense! Is it meant 
for a joke? No. It is an every¬ 
day happening, along the Pan¬ 
ama Canal, to call a health of¬ 
ficer to arrest a mosquito burglar. 
There are terrible beasts and 
snakes in the hot, green jungle, 
but no wild animal in tropical 


America is as dangerous as the 
mosquito. It may give malarial 
or yellow fever to anyone it bites, 

Mosquitoes and then, by biting the 
Worse Than sick, spread these dis- 

Jungle Beasts eases tQ we]1 people. 

After a full meal of blood themos- 
quito hides, high on the wall, in a 
dark corner or closet or hanging 
garment, and goes to sleep. If one 
is in a house health officers find it. 

% 

In the Pest Hole of the Americas 

In 1900 Panama was, as it had 
always been, the worst pest hole 
of the Americas. For nine 


This is a model of 
the malarial mosquito 
in the American Mu¬ 
seum of Natural His¬ 
tory, New York City. 
Jt shows the insect 
in the attitude it as¬ 
sumes when doing its 
deadly work. The 
mosquito is built in¬ 
ternally, as you see, 
something like a 
water tube boiler. 




























































:: 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


ft 


months in 
every day. 

Fifty Styles 
of Mosquito 
Bites 


the year it rains there 
Fifty varieties of mos¬ 
quitoes breed by billions 
in the swamps and slow, 
broad streams. Doctors 
learned that certain diseases are giv¬ 
en by these little nuisances. If 
white men were to live there and dig 
the canal, the mosquitoes had to go. 
So the government sent Colonel 
Gorgas, an army engineer and sur¬ 
geon, and made him family doctor 
of the Canal Zone. 

How They Got Rid of Mrs. Y. F. Mos¬ 
quito 

There are many kinds of people 
in Panama—Americans, Spanish- 
Americans, Negroes, Chinese coo¬ 
lies. Natives never have these fe¬ 
vers, and are ignorant about health 


rules. They could not understand | 
why the “wiggletails” in open rain- | 
water barrels and out-of-door | 
closets did any harm. They could j 
see no use in cleaning and fumigat- | 
Just to Oblige ing their houses. But j 
the Colonel Colonel Gorgas was so n 
jolly and friendly, they did any- j 
thing he asked, just to oblige him. | 
They let him put in a water sys- g 
tern and sewer and fill up the pools | 
in the villages, although it no doubt | 
seemed a queer thing to do. 

Then Came Mrs. Malaria Mosquito 

That settled Mrs. Yellow Fever j 
Mosquito, but Mrs. Malaria Mos- j 
quito laid her eggs everywhere. | 
All along the Canal Zone, swamps | 
had to be drained. Then, back in | 


In the Panama Jungle 



“There are terrible beasts and snakes in the hot, green jungle, but no wild animal in tropical 
America is as dangerous as the mosquito.” Here’s a bit of the jungle with a malaria-breeding 
puddle. And the natives in the picture, Negroes, are of the kind that “never have these fevers 
and are ignorant about health rules.” The big palm with the frayed leaves on the right is a banana 
tree. See how the girl is carrying one of the native “water buckets,” an earthen bowl, of which 
there are several more on the ground at the left. 


•V 


8 


442 







COLONEL GORGAS 


a 


| the hills, across every rivulet that 
| flowed to the villages, iron ash cans 
| were set on plank bridges. The 
| cans were filled with crude carbolic 
| acid, resin and caustic soda. This 

1 Million ‘Dol- oil y poison oozed, drop 
| Jar War on by drop, into all the 
| WiggJetails streams and spread over 

| the water. When the mosquito wig- 
| gletails came up to breathe they 
| were killed. Negro porters, carry - 
| ing tanks, sprayed the poison into 
| every pool. Doors and windows 
| were screened with copper wire. A 
| person sick of fever was rushed to a 
| hospital. Health officers vaccinated 
| people. Others trapped, poisoned 
| and shot wharf rats at the seaports, 
| for rat fleas carry the black plague. 
| It has cost millions of dollars to 
| make this hot, damp country as 
| healthy as a northern city. It will 
| cost more millions, every year, to 
| keep it so healthy that ships will not 
| carry diseases elsewhere. 

1 The New “Bill of Health” for the Zone 

What do you think the health of- 
| fleers call themselves? “Ditch dig- 
| gers.” Colonel Gorgas says that, 
| by keeping the workman in good 
| Result of health, the Sanitary 
i the ‘Doctor's Commission took half 
| Great Work f-pg ^ift ou £ Q f t} ie Cule- 

| bra Cut. Through his good work 
| he keeps families together, mothers 
| and babies on the green, palm-shaded 
| lawns, a swarm of rosy children 


tumbling boisterously in and out of 
white school houses. He says he 
intends to make the Canal Zone so 
healthy, that a man will have to 
break a leg to get into a hospital. 

No other work done on the Canal 
has been more important or diffi- 

A Lesson cult; no other has af- 

for the fected so many far-away 

People lands and peoples. In 

countless places Colonel Gorgas’ 

methods of fighting germ diseases 
and insect carriers are being copied. 
And how sweet and human he is. 
Do you want a picture of him? 

A Pen Picture of the Soldier Doctor 

He is a strongly built man, with 
a kindly smile and twinkling eyes. 
He wears white duck, a soft shirt 
and Panama hat. In any native 
house he may be seen, with fat, 
brown children scrambling over 

But the Jolly him - He slaps the men 
Doctor and boys on the should- 

Means It! er To the lady he says : 

“Senora (Madam) you certainly do 
make the best lemonade on the Isth¬ 
mus. I just turned your rainwater 
barrel upside down.” Then to the 
husband: 

“Senor, if you don’t fill up that 
puddle in your back yard, I shall 
have to put a fine fellow in jail. 
How many toes has baby Rosalie 
got? Five! That’s just the right 
number to play a game I know: 
“This little pig goes to market” 


*♦ 


J} 

♦♦ 


443 




The Man Who Taught the World That 
“No Boy Can Be a Criminal” 



“Today, hundreds of honest and useful men bless the ‘kid’ Judge for giving 
them a new start, and saving them from the disgrace of having been in a re¬ 
formatory.” 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH 


444 





SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 


The “Kid” Judge 


T HAT doesn’t mean a child 
judge, but a judge of chil¬ 
dren. It is the slang nickname 
that the boys of Denver gave to 
Judge Lindsey. It is an affection¬ 
ate pet name, too, for they love 
him. He would not trade that 
name for the proudest title in the 
world. This is how he got it. 

An Appeal to a Boy’s Honor 

In 1900, when he was thirty- 
one years old,he was elected judge 
of the Probate Court in Den¬ 
ver. There was no Juvenile Court 

‘Rollery then. When a boy 

of the was arrested his case 

‘Pigeon Poost was tried by any one 

of several judges. One morning 
a “gang” of boys were brought 
before Judge Lindsey, charged 
with robbing a pigeon roost. That 
was stealing. The law called it a 
crime, no matter whether the 
guilty person was six years old or 
sixty. The boys hadn’t thought 
of it that way. In taking the 
pigeons they saw, they were just 
teasing an old man who was ill- 
tempered and mean to boys. 

Judge Lindsey explained the law. 
He must send them to the reform¬ 
atory at Golden. 

Then he remembered some¬ 
thing. With a crowd of boys he 

And then ha . d once s t a r t e d to 

the Judge raid that same pigeon 

Remembered roostt to “g et even” 

with the cross old farmer. The 
other boys did do it, but Benny 
Lindsey backed out because he 



was afraid. Those boys had all 
grown up into good and useful 
men who would not think of steal¬ 
ing. What if they had been 
caught and punished as criminals? 

“Would I be here now, to judge 
these boys? No. I would proba¬ 
bly have been discouraged and 
turned bad.” 

Then He Said This to the Boys: 

“Boys,” he said, “do you know 
what a parole is? Prisoners of war 
in camp, where they cannot be 
locked up, give their word of 
honor not to escape. I will parole 
you. You must report to me once 
a week. If you break your word 
and get into trouble again, I shall 
have to send you to the reforma¬ 
tory. I will be criticized for giv¬ 
ing you this chance to reform 
yourselves. If I trust you, and I 
believe in boys, why, you must 
stand by me.” 

He was a small, boyish-looking 
man, with a big head and frail 
body, and he talked to the boys as 

How the Boys though he were one of 
Stood Py them. So they called 
the Judge him the « kid ” Judge, 

and stood by him, because he un¬ 
derstood “kids.” So successful 
was this new idea of getting boys 
to behave “on honor” that other 
judges sent all the children to 
Judge Lindsey. 

A Live Boy vs. a Dead Man’s Millions 

One day he interrupted the 
hearing of a will case to attend to a 




































































giiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiininiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimi^ 


The “Kid” Judge and One of the “Kids” 



This is Judge Lindsey and his helpers hearing the story of one of the boy offenders. Notice the 
kindly, interested expression on Judge Lindsey’s face. 


newsboy, saying: “A live boy is 
worth more than a dead man’s 
millions.” 

Through the influence of Miss 
Jane Addams, Chicago had the first 
Juvenile Court in the world, but 
Denver soon followed, and Judge 
Lindsey became the best known 
preacher of the new gospel—that “no 
child can be a criminal.” 

The “How and Why” of Bad Boys 

What ails a boy, then, who fights 
and steals and destroys property and 
injures others? Judge Lindsey says 
he is probably neglected and un- 
Ma%mg taught. His father may 

The‘Boy be dead, his mother 

Over Again obliged to leave him all 
day to work. He may be willful, or 
he may have gotten into bad com¬ 
pany. He may not have enough to 


eat, or clothes or books to go to 
school. He may need some older, 
wiser person to help him get work, 
or innocent play, to love him and 
listen to his troubles. That is what 
the juvenile court judges and pro¬ 
bation officers do for child offenders 
everywhere, now. They find out 
why a boy is bad, and then help him 
to be good. 

A Brief Biography of the “Kid” Judge 

The “Kid” Judge was born in 
Tennessee, in 1869. His father, a 
wealthy planter, was made poor by 
the war. At eleven years of age he 
was a “newsie” and messenger boy 
in Denver. At seventeen, a delicate 
youth, he had to help his widowed 
mother care for three younger chil¬ 
dren. As office boy in a law office 
he read the big books. He went to 


ttiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


446 






t*# 


BENJAMIN BARR LINDSAY 


♦ ♦ 


night school and worked his way 
through college. But he always had 
a home and a good mother. When 
he became a judge he saw many 
boys who had neither. 

Isn’t 95% Interest in Boys Pretty Good? 

Ninety-five out of every hundred 
children that he put on honor, never 
got into trouble again. Boys who 
just couldn’t behave he persuaded to 
go to the reform school. He gave 
them money and tickets for the jour¬ 
ney and they went alone, without 
guards, asking to be locked up. 
Once a week there was a confes¬ 
sional in the court room. Each boy 


made his own confession. No boy 
was ever asked to tell on another. 
You know how boys despise a 

Boys Who “snitcher.” The “kid” 
Liked to he judge despises one, too. 
Locked Uf» Boys who had not even 

been arrested came to Judge Lindsey 
and owned up to law breaking. 
Stolen things were restored to their 
owners, and destroyed property paid 
for through the juvenile court. 

Today, hundreds of honest and 
useful men bless the “kid” Judge 
for giving them a new start in life, 
and saving them from the disgrace 
of having been sent to a reforma¬ 
tory. 


The Barefoot Boy 


1 Blessings on thee, little man, 

| Barefoot boy, with cheek of tan! 

| With thy turned-up pantaloons, 

| And thy merry whistled tunes; 

1 With thy red lip, redder still 
I Kissed by strawberries on the hill; 

| With the sunshine on thy face, 

| Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace; 
| From my heart I give thee joy ,— 

| I was once a barefoot boy! 

I Prince thou art,—the grown-up man 
| Only is republican. 

| Let the million-dollared ride! 
i Barefoot trudging at his side, 

| Thou hast more than he can buy 
§ In the reach of ear and eye, 

| Outward sunshine, inward joy; 

| Blessings on thee, barefoot boy! 

| Oh, for boyhood’s painless play, 

| Sleep that wakes in laughing day, 

1 Health that mocks the doctor’s rules, 

I Knowledge never learned of schools, 

1 Of the wild bee’s morning chase, 

I Of the wild-flower’s time and place, 

1 Flight of fozvl and habitude 
| Of the tenants of the wood; 

| How the tortoise bears his shell, 

I How the woodchuck digs his cell, 
i And the ground-mole sinks his well; 

1 How the robin feeds her young; 

1 How the oriole’s nest is hung. 

1 Oh for boyhood’s time of June, 
i Crowding years in one brief moon, 

1 When all things I heard or saw, 


8 


Me, their master, waited for. | 

I was rich in flowers and trees, I 

Humming-birds and honey-bees; g 

For my sport the squirrel played. | 

Plied the snouted mole his spade; I 

For my taste the blackberry cone 
Purpled over hedge and stone; M 

Laughed the brook for my delight 
Through the day and through the night. g 
Whispering at the garden wall, g 

Talked with me from fall to fall; 

Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond, 

Mine the walnut slopes beyond, 

Mine, on bending orchard trees, 

Apples of Hesperides! g 

Still as my horizon grew, i 

Larger grew my riches, too; I 

All the world I saw or knew 
Seemed a complex Chinese toy, I 

Fashioned for a barefoot boy! | 

Oh for festal dainties spread, 1 

Like my bowl of milk and bread; 

Pewter spoon and bowl of wood, 

On the door-stone, gray and rude! 

O’er me, like a regal tent, g 

Cloudy-ribbed, the sunset bent, § 

Purple-curtained, fringed with gold, 

Looped in many a wind-swung fold; 

While for music came the play | 

Of the pied frogs’ orchestra; g 

And, to light the noisy choir, g 

Lit the fly his lamp of fire. i 

I was monarch; pomp and joy I 

Waited on the barefoot boy! 

John Greenleaf Whittier 

v# 


447 



I How the Air Man Steers His Way Through the Clouds 



Have you ever peeked over the shoulder of the man who was driving an automobile? Or per¬ 
haps you have taken the big wheel in your hands yourself and gone spinning over the open roads. 
Does this look like the front of an automobile? For one thing the wheel is smaller and in the mid¬ 
dle instead of at one side. The engine speed-indicator isn’t very different from some speedometers. 
Like the automobile the aeroplane has a clock and a switch and the footbars are something like the 
automobile’s clutch and brake. Many of the ideas in the flying machine have been borrowed from 
the automobile, you see. 


44S 












SDP 


SOME OF THE 
WORLD'S HELPERS 


The Wright Broth ers 

Conquerors of the Air 


Orville Wright, the 
younger of the two 
most famous Amer¬ 
ican aviators. 


Wilbur Wright who 
with his brother 
built the first true 
flying machine 


There is a 
Wright sister, 
too. When you 
think of Wil¬ 
bur and Orville 
Wright, the 
American inven¬ 
tors of the “flying 
machine/’ d o n t 
forget Katherine 
Wright, who gave 
her brothers the 
money she earned 
by teaching and 
nursing, to build 
their aeroplane. 

Now, when anyone does a very 
big, new thing, the world always 
wants to know how he came to 
do it, because that may help other 
people to do new things. An old 
man who knew the Wright broth¬ 
ers when they were little chaps 
has said: “I am not surprised. 


This $2,500 trophy was given by the 
Scientific American for long distance 
flights in heavier-than-air machines. 


They were just 
the kind of boys 
to do it. Like 
Edison, th ey 
were busy ev- 
e r y m i n u t e— 
reading, thinking, 
learning some- 
thing even when 
they played, tink¬ 
ering at their 
sleds, kites, bicy¬ 
cles and a printing 
press. They were 
gentle mannered 
boys, honest, mod¬ 
est, truthful, hard working, with 
active bodies and minds crammed 
full of curiosity and determina¬ 
tion. When they began anything 
they finished it.” 

They were neither rich nor 
poor. Their father was a minis¬ 
ter with a large family. They 


449 






























































..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii^ 


| went through high school and then 
| through his fine library of two thou- 
| sand good books. The whole fam¬ 
ily seems to be in this 
| f us y story. The father loved 

I Two brothers to and to Study 

| with his boys. When 

| Wilbur was eleven and Orville 
| seven years old, he brought home a 


tried coasting down a steep, snowy j 
hillside on a box kite to see what j 
would happen. Sure enough, it j 
rose from the earth, sailed near the j 
ground a little way and came down | 
—hard. | 

Putting a Heart in the Mechanical Bird 1 

“I'll tell you what, Buddy,” said | 


The Two “Bird-Men” and Their Sister, Katherine 



Underwood & Underwood, 


Together these three worked and planned and dreamed to conquer the air. The picture shows 
them on their return from Europe, where the brothers demonstrated the practicability of their 
machine. 


me-chan-i-cal toy. On being wound 
up it flew like a bat until it ran 
down. It was such fun to hunt 
through big, hard books to find out 
what made that toy fly. They read 
about the air-gliding machines of 
Mr. Otto Lilienthal. 

Just like other boys, the Wright 
brothers had coasted on sleds and 
bicycles, or earth gliders. They had 
rowed boats, or water gliders. They 
“A Family ” had sailed kites, or air 
That Worked gliders. Sometimes, 
Together when they had sent up 

a box kite on a strong wind, it had 
pulled them off their feet. They 


one of them, “if it had an engine 
in it, it w r ould keep on going.” 

That wasn’t all it needed. In 
1896 Mr. Lilienthal was killed 
when his engine-driven air glider 

Learning of Came d ° WI1 S0 hard that 

Bicycles, Kites it was wrecked. That 
and Seats made thg Wrjght boys> 

grown men now, put on their 
thinking caps in earnest. The mo¬ 
torcycle, motorboat and automobile 
are all driven by engines, but if 
they could not be started, stopped 
and steered they would smash into 
everything, and be too dangerous. 


Kiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


450 




♦ ♦ 


The aero¬ 
plane would 
be useless 
until it could 
be controlled. 

What Was Go¬ 
ing On in the 
Bicycle Shop 


For the 
next eight 
years the 
W right 
broth ers 
spent all 
their spare 
time and 
money work¬ 
ing on this 
problem i n 
their little 
bicycle shop 
in Dayton, 

Ohio. They 
knew that 
many other 
men, in our 
own country 
and in Eu¬ 
rope, were 
trying to get 

the answer to that problem, too. 
And, oh, they were so much more 
likely to succeed than the Wright 
brothers! They had time, learning, 
delicate testing machines, money to 
build models, and powerful friends, 
and even governments to help them, 
and believe in them. The Wright 
brothers had only the time after 
work hours, no money, no laboratory 
and were not even well educated for 
their task. No one but sister Kath¬ 
erine and the rest of the family knew 
what they were trying to do, or be¬ 
lieved that they could do it. 

How Reading Pointed the Way 

One thing kept up their courage. 


THE WRIGHT BROTHERS 

Caught in a Storm 


» 



Storms are fearful things for the aviator. This is a 
French air man tearing through the wind and rain at the 
furious rate of one hundred and thirty miles an hour. Can 
you tell from the picture what type of machine he is using? 


By reading 
of other 
men’s exper¬ 
iments they 
came to the 
cone lus ion 
that every¬ 
one else was 
on the wrong 
track. With 
the rudest 
tools they 
made their 
own tests of 
air pressure, 
weight of 
m a terials, 
necessary 
spread of 
“wings,” en¬ 
gine power, 
propellers 
and steering 
gears. They 
knew their 
aeroplane — 
which was a 
double box- 
kite motor- 
ai r - boat—• 
would sail before they made it. But 
if Katherine Wright hadn’t given her 
brothers all her savings they could 
not have built their aeroplane, and, 
then, as many people who know, are 
saying: “We would not be sailing 
the air today.” 

It was in December, 1903, at Kitty 
Hawk, a lonely life-saving station on 
the coast of North Carolina, that the 
aeroplane was launched, sailed and 
brought to earth under perfect con- 

A Surprise tro1 ; 0f C0UrSe the 
for the Wright brothers became 

Neighbors r i c h an d famous almost 

at once. They had kept so quiet 

about what they were doing that the 

people of Dayton learned from the 


♦ ♦ 


451 





A # m Alt 

*. AMC»>«AN <r***-*M WAT** 
FI,¥ING’(»I|M which dart* 

«v out of #h» w«f*r into lb« ^ 
in a r*sn»»ri«aM« 


BEETLE with 
elytra lifted 
up during 

f li$ht. 




‘#rwl I 

mmkpkim^y aetas ’'‘plane*'; who? 

wlXf* supply the drl vm$ powei 

Thick fur above 

4 


Insect in flight 
with hind wi*i$s «e 
b«l»ncer» . thetae vl 
do not b»»t the »irJ 


ient^ty | 
n&irs I 
below 


Section of an 
AFRICAN 

FLY1NC SQUIRREL, 
showing that the paf»«£»»l 
membrane consist's of akin only. 




< v ,, 






AN AFRICAN 

FiviNc squirh*l $Ud*n$ 
The skin -fold does not extend 
alon$ the kti. In appearance 
they reaombp the true Ffym6 

., rr«u. 




C AHj 

FCVIWC jd&r- w" 

♦euiHRti.^ Tk««nly 

*''>"ZF P«^i*t fall 
t'AfiT «*»«« H«? »? K» 
for* .in4 Hind I 


RESTORATION 

of ARCHAEOPTERYX - th» 
mosf «nci«nl bird of which any record 


<t known. 




«1h. 


eAvsrr 


-•i'^^e**** '- 


teMliMlilH 


PNEUMATIC BONE of BIRD - The 

Hyiiri<jrus cut !on^ttudin«lly to show 
air cavity, (auoatros) 


•Skeleton W i n 
of a Camiet- aJJ the 
bonrs of wtn^i are pneomat 


v ^ k * J,e,ron W,n ^ , '$^.*^***^ 
oF fulmar Retrel 

no ne of the hones of th«* wincj 

are pneumatic, 


Men, # before they devised a successful flying machine, learned a great deal from the study of the flight 
direct imitation of the live flying machines” were failures. It was only when man worked out the 
succeeded. t 

That big word patagial, under the sectional picture of the African flying squirrel, is simply a scientific 
such animals as the flying squirrel and the flying lizard. 


452 









































Ml III 


the Waters, Fields, and Woods 



flyinc -#*•»» m «. s 


dt M r< ^ S ’ i nsects ant * ot her flying creatures. It must be remembered, however, that their attempts to fly by 
f oDlem from the standpoint of his own circumstances and the material he had to deal with that he 

-vord meaning “winged membrane.” It is applied to the fold of skin connecting the fore and hind legs of 


453 




































t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiit PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


How Men First Tried to Fly 


Men first tried to fly 
^ by making artificial 
H wings which they operat- 
=| ed by waving their arms 
§§ up and down. This man 
H has two sail-like devices 
H attached to his body like 
M wings, a parachute, and 


M Aeroplane Built by 

The Wright Brothers 
§j built the first successful 
M aeroplanes on this model, 
M with two planes, one 
jf above and the other be¬ 
ll low the engine. Behind 
j| the planes is the propel- 
H lor, a big, fan-like wheel. 
H and the rudders, one hor- 
= izontal, which controls 
s the machine’s upward 
§| movement and the other 
H perpendicular, for turn- 
H ing it to the right or left. 
H The rubber tired wheels 
M a t the bottom are used 



ballast hung from his 
waist in a basket. It was 
only after an endless 
number of such experi¬ 
ments had been tried that 
they found the right way 
to sail the air—by copy¬ 
ing the kite, not the bird. 


the Wright Brothers 

when the machine rises 
from the ground and 
when it lights. When 
you fly your kite you run 
very fast with it and if 
there is a good wind the 
kite begins to rise. The 
aeroplane rises in the 
same way—by running 
along the ground on its 
wheels with the horizon¬ 
tal rudder tilted upward. 
As it begins to go up, 
straightening this rudder 
then tilting it again helps 
it to climb. 


:: 



8 


i*: 


454 









bur died in 1912 without 
telling the secret, and Or¬ 
ville carried the work on 
alone. 

Y ou know how many 

* 

“bird men” have met death 
in trying to break speed rec¬ 
ords, and in feats of skill and 
daring. The Wright bro¬ 
thers have tried to stop such 
foolish exhibits. All their 
efforts, since success, have 
been toward making the 
aeroplane safe and useful. 

No brighter, cleaner 
chapter has ever been written 
in the history of invention 
than this of the conquest of 
the air; and we have only a 
few such stories of brotherly love 
and loyalty. No other country or 


Here is a monoplane coming baok to the vessel from 
which it started. The first airships made their starts and 
landings from the land or from the water itself; it was not 
until later that they came and went in the air from boats. 
Now they are sometimes carried by battleships to do scout¬ 
ing. 


for so long, for a great purpose, with 
courage, patience and faith. 


r 


455 







The Doctor Knight of Labrador 



© Underwood & Underwood 


“He set broken legs, dressed gunshot wounds, cured fever. As a minister he buried the dead, 
and married the young. He started a traveling library. And he brought Christmas to the children.” 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 

45 6 



















SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 


SOP 


© Brown Brothers 

“People felt better just to see the big, funny bear of a jolly doctor in his Eskimo clothes.” 


Y OU know what a knight is. 

In old tales of chivalry, the 
hero put on his armor and rode 
away to fight bad men and de¬ 
fend fair ladies. After a brave 
deed he was knighted. The King 
touched his shoulder with a 
sword, as he knelt, and said: 
“Arise, Sir Knight.” His title 
was a sort of hero medal. 

Men do not have to fight in 
that way, today, but they battle 
against other kinds of evils. They 
spend their lives in loving service 
to the poor, the sick, the ignorant 

■■Soldiers of and lonely. Painters, 
the Common sculptors, writers, ex- 
G° 0< L plorers, men of sci¬ 

ence, inventors, engineers, help to 
make the world a better and 
pleasanter place to live in. In 
countries where there are kings, 


men are still being knighted for 
useful, brave, and kind deeds. A 
few years ago a medical mission¬ 
ary of far away frozen Labra¬ 
dor knelt before King Edward 
of England. The King touched 
his shoulder with a sword and 
said: 

“Arise, Sir Wilfred Grenfell.” 

Then the ladies and gentlemen 
of the proudest court in the world 
crowded about a poor doctor of 
fisher folk, to ask about his dan¬ 
gerous and lonely work. They 

Winning g ave him «Wney to 
Friends at the build two hospitals, to 
Kmg s Court a swift steam 

yacht, and to get a herd of rein¬ 
deer from Lapland, the only 
milk-giving and big draught ani¬ 
mals that can live in Labrador. 
As an English knight he was able 


457 





































































































!Jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE uiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiii^ 


| to make his mission better known, 
| and to take greater comfort to the 
| people of a desolate land. 

Gave Up London for Labrador 

| Some of the people of Labrador 
| are Eskimos. They can supply 
| their few needs of food, fuel and 
| shelter. But in the fishing villages 
| along the coast there are English 
| and French Canadians. For nine 
| dark months in every year they are 
| frozen in. The ships cannot come 
| and there are no railroads. Doctors 
| and ministers from Newfoundland 
| were afraid to travel with dog 
| sledges. In 1892, news too good to 
| be true spread through the fishing 
| fleets, along three thousand miles of 
| coast, and back to the huts of fur 
| trappers. Dr. Grenfell, a London 
| surgeon, was coming to live and 
| work in Labrador. 

| In the summer he uses a little 
| steamer, stopping in any harbor 
| where a flag flies. Icebergs, floes, 
| gales, fogs and jutting crags make 

I ‘Perns of the ever y ™ yage perilous. 
| Land of Winter journeys are still 
| Eternal Snow mQ re dangerous. At first 

| he had only a spruce log sledge, 
| with the jaw bones of a whale for 
| runners, pulled by a string of 
| Eskimo dogs. There were no 
1 roads. 


The Jolly Saint That Dressed Like a Bear 

But oh, what things he saw, what 
suffering he relieved in bare, dark, 
cold little huts! People felt better 
just to see the big, furry bear of a 

The First j°Hy doctor in his Es- 
Wooden Leg kimo c 1 o t h e s. He set 
in Labrador broken legs, dressed 

gunshot wounds, cured fevers. He 
got wheeled chairs for the para¬ 
lyzed; crutches for the crippled. 
The first wooden leg ever seen in 


Labrador made a useful man of a | 
helpless boy. Crooked backs and j 
lame hips were cured in the hospi- | 
tals. Injured fishermen were mend- j 
ed. Herds of reindeer gave milk to j 
children, and made traveling easier. | 

And He Played Santa Claus, Too! 

More than that, he brought joy to | 
cheerless lives. As a minister, he | 
buried the dead, and married the j 
young. He started a traveling li- | 
brary. And he brought Christmas | 
to the children. Magazine and j 
newspaper articles and letters he | 
wrote brought boxes to him from | 
many countries. Boxes of gifts were | 
sent to the most distant cabins. In j 
St. Anthony he dressed as Santa | 
Claus, and drove up to the little vil- | 
lage church with a team of reindeer. | 
What a wonderful, fairy-tale time | 
it was! There were little girls who | 
had never seen a play baby or tea | 
set; boys who had never owned a | 
Santa in j a c k k n i f e or ball; old j 

RemdeerLand people who had never i 

eaten candy. No one at all of all | 
those poor fisher folk had ever | 
dreamed of such a glittering tree! | 
Months afterwards he saw one of | 
the Christmas dolls hanging on the | 
wall of a bare hut. | 

“Why don’t you play with your | 
baby doll, dear?” the doctor asked | 
the little mama. 

A Doll Too Sweet to Play With! 

“Oh, she’s too swe-e-et and be-au- | 
ti-ful to hold. I must keep her for- | 
ever to look at.” j 

If you want to help this brave, 1 
true knight keep Christmas, send | 

And You y° ur gift in the summer, j 

Can Helf The tiniest thing would | 

the Doctor make some child happy. | 

Address it to Doctor, Sir Wilfred | 

Grenfell, Battle Harbor, Labrador. 


S'! 


♦♦♦ 


458 



gpp? 


SOME OF THE 
WORLD'S HELPERS 


Burbank the Plant Wizard 


Photograph 
by Paul 
Thompson 


O NCE there was a boy who 
loved plants. Do I mean ani¬ 
mals? You can understand any 
one being fond of animals, for 
they learn to love those who care 
for them. But any florist, gardener 
or farmer can tell you that plants 
repay wise and loving 
care, by giving their 
biggest, finest fruits 
and flowers. Not so 
very many years ago, people 
thought in farming and garden¬ 
ing all they could do was to plow 
land, put in seeds and keep the 
weeds down. The rest was just 
weather and luck. So some very 
useful and beautiful plants dwin- 


The Boy 
Wh o was 
Kind to 
‘Plants 


This is 

Luther 

Burbank 

himself 

seated 

beside 

a big 

spineless 

cactus 


died and pined away, because no 
one knew what more to do for 
them. Farmers said the seed “ran 
out.” They did nothing about 
this until a bright boy waked 
them up. 

It was in Lancaster, Mass., 
where Luther Burbank was born 
in 1849. Most New England boys 
became sailors—“far countries for 
to see,” or they went 
to California to dig 
gold. At sixteen 
Luther was not strong 
enough to go to sea, or to “rough 
it” in a mining camp. He had to 
stay at home, and do the hum¬ 
drum tasks of a poor farm. There 


The 

Romance 
of Farm 
Life 


459 











































































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


1^ 


| is no romance in plowing a scanty 
I corn field or digging a meager crop 
| of potatoes—unless you have imagi- 
| nation. 

Story of the First Roasting Ears 

Luther Burbank had. New Eng- 
| land seasons are late. There were 
Two Weeks few green things in the 
gardens before July. In 
Fitchburg well - to - do 
would 


Ahead of 
“Luck" 


| p e o p le 
| pay good prices 
| for early vege- 
| tables. He sur- 
| prised everyone 
| by bringing in a 
| wagon load of 
| ‘Toasting ears,” 

| two weeks ahead 
| of anyone else. 

| The secret of it 
| was that he se- 
| lected large, 

| plump seeds and 
| sprouted them in 
| manure and leaf 
| m o 1 d before 
| planting them. 

| His corn was 
| “up” the next 
| morning. H e 
| pulled the weak- 
| er plants with 
| the weeds, and 
j then plowed and plowed. His corn 
| grew fast and tall, with many ears 
| to the stalk. 

How He “Invented” His Big Potato 

Next he turned his attention to 
| potatoes. They had “run out” giv- 
3 ing only a few small ones in the hill. 

1 Encouraging P ° 0r littIe dlSCOUraged 
I Discouraged things! He would do his 
| Potatoes best {.q } ie ip them grow 

| bigger and more plentifully. It took 

| him four summers of back-breaking 

| work, and four long New England 

♦> 

♦« 


winters of patient waiting. But the | 

whole country was excited when the | 

big Burbank potatoes were put on j 

the market for seed. His crop was | 

sold for enough money to take him | 

to southern California, the plant j 

paradise. There, while working as | 

a farm hand, and growing strong in | 

the sun, he studied plants. 

How the Wizard Works in | 
His Nursery 

He found that j 

some plants were j 

naturally better 3 

than others of | 

the same kind, | 

and wanted to be | 

helped. Careful j 

seed selection, | 

rich soil, culti- | 

vation, and not | 

allowing bugs to | 

bite them will | 

improve plants | 

wonderfully. But | 

to grow new va- j 

rieties this plant | 

friend had to j 

play honey bee. | 

He lifted the I 

pollen from the | 

blossom of one | 

kind, on a cam- 1 
The Burbank “White" Blackberry el ’ s hair brush, | 

and carried it to the wet button of | 
the seed tube of another. This is | 
called “crossing.” By crossing a | 
Playing common red poppy with | 

the “Honey a red striped yellow one | 
Bee he grew the big, crim- | 

son poppy. A way in which he | 
helps fruit is by grafting twig buds | 
of a fine variety that is scarce, onto | 
a vigorous old tree. He has some- 1 
times grafted one thousand varieties 1 
of apples on one tree, by cutting out | 
grafts that disappointed him. He | 
works patiently for years, for a cer- | 

I 

♦♦ 


460 









^iiiiiiiiiiiiiii.. BURBANK, THE PLANT WIZARD mini...... 


*♦ 


k'« 


The Big Stoneless Plum and the Two Kinds of Plums from Which It was Developed 


tain size, color, flavor or firmness of 
fruit, or to reduce the seed. 

This “plant wizard” as he is 
called, has no secrets. He tells other 
men just how he works to get his 
wonderful results. About forty of 
his improved plants became known. 
But he had grown over twelve hun¬ 
dred others that the world knew 
very little about. You see he had 
no money to publish reports. As his 
discoveries were too important to be 
lost, the Carnegie Institute set aside 
one hundred thousand dollars to 
help carry on his experiments. Con¬ 
gress gave him the use of govern¬ 
ment land on which to grow the 


spineless cactus that cattle can eat. 

Mr. Burbank is not rich, but he 
has added millions of dollars a year 
to the value of our field, orchard, 
And You garden, forage and tim- 
Can Find b er cr0 p S> One of the 

ouchrortunes 1 , . . 

in Your greatest helpers oi men 
Cornfield that ever lived, the path¬ 
way to his door is worn smooth by 
pilgrims who go to honor him and 
learn of him. Don't you wonder if 
any Lancaster boy who ever went 
to sea or dug for gold, found greater 
good fortune, or a happier, more 
useful life than Luther Burbank 
found in his corn fields and his hills 
of “run out” potatoes? 


Burbank’s Ever Bearing Rhubarb 


















I Mr. Hill and How He Wrote His Name 



462 













James J. Hill, the Colossus of Roads 


Here is Mr. Hill standing in the doorway of the cab of one of his own big 
locomotives. 


I N the story of the “Seven Won¬ 
ders of the World,” you can 
read about the giant figure 
of a man that was called the 
Colossus of Rhodes. When Mr. 
James J. Hill finished the Great 
Northern Railroad, some witty 
person changed the spelling to 
“roads,” to make the name fit our 
greatest railroad builder. 

Little Jim Hill’s Fondness for Good 
Books 

Little “Jim” Hill never 
dreamed of winning such a nick¬ 
name, when he was a boy on a 
farm in Ontario, Canada. He 


had a Scotch mother who wanted 
her dear, book-loving laddie to 
be a doctor. When he grew up, 
and was living in St. Paul, Min¬ 
nesota, he offered himself as a 
soldier, to fight in our Civil War, 
but Uncle Sam could not accept 
him. Two sad misfortunes, in 

The Studious childhood, spoiled 
Hard-Work- both plans. First a 
mg Scotch Boy pi a y ma t e struck him 

with an arrow, making him blind 
in one eye, when he was nine 
years old, so he could not be a 
soldier. When he was fifteen his 
father died, and he had to leave 


4^3 


































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iii! PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiuiiiniinmiiiMraiiiiiiiiiiiiuiffliiiiiuiiiiniiniiiiniimraiiiiiiiiiimiii^ 


school. In 1856, at the age of eight¬ 
een, he came to St. Paul to clerk in 
a Mississippi River steamboat office. 
It is a big city today, with a thickly 
peopled country behind it, but then 
it was only a 
struggling pio¬ 
neer village “at 
the far end of 
nowhere.” The 
Scotch Canad¬ 
ian youth 
worked hard all 
day, and stud¬ 
ied half the 
night. He 
learned such a 
variety of 
things, and 
knew them so 
well, that he 
could write an 
encyclopedia. 

In his railroad 
building he 
found use for 
everything he 
knew. 

They Laughed at 
First, of Course! 

Firewood 
was cheap in 
Minnesota, and 
everybody laughed when “Jim” Hill 
brought a boat-load of coal from 
Illinois. But he sent that coal in 
wagons to the Red River and sold 
it in the Canadian town of Winni¬ 
peg. People laughed again when 
he bought an unfinished, bankrupt 
railroad, that had “crawled four 
hundred miles out on the prairie to 
die.” But in six years, and that was 
in 1885, he was president of a good 
road that was making money. 

Then Capitalists Began to Believe in Him 


lumber came from the Northwest 
had to go across Canada, by the 
Canadian Pacific, or down to Chi¬ 
cago by the Northern Pacific. Mr. 
Hill saw how a thousand miles of 

rail f reight 
could be saved, 
if a road were 
run between 
these, and Pu- 
get Sound 
connected with 
Lake Superior. 
That would 
save money on 
the long haul to 
Buffalo, for 
water travel is 
cheaper than 
land. He made 
men with mon¬ 
ey believe in 
his plan, al¬ 
though neither 
of the other 
roads were 
making profits. 
Look where the 
“Great North¬ 
ern” runs, from 
Duluth to Seat¬ 
tle, with the 
cities and towns 
strung along it. That road was 
pushed through the wilderness— 
through “the land of sky blue wa¬ 
ter” of Minnesota, the prairies of 
Dakota, along the big muddy Mis¬ 
souri, over wild mountains and deep 
canyons. 

A Line that Reached Half Way ’Round 
the World 

When it was finished in 1893, 
people poured in, and wheat poured 
out. Lumber camps and mines 
were opened. Grain elevators rose 
like lighthouses, above the sea of 
grain; cattle and sheep ranged a 


In that day, what wheat and 






Speaking to a Gathering of Farmers 



This picture shows Mr. Hill delivering a speech 
to the farmers along his lines, in which he is 
emphasizing the need of better farming methods. 


464 














thousand hills 
and orchards 
bloomed in ev¬ 
ery valley. A 
fleet of ships 
had to be built 
on Lake Su¬ 
perior to carry 
half a mil¬ 
lion bushels of 
wheat to Buf¬ 
falo every year; 
and a branch 
line pushed far 
up into Can¬ 
ada. There was 
a fleet on the 
Pacific to carry 
flour and cot¬ 
ton to China 
and Japan, 
and steamers 
running to 
Alaska. 


And This Scotch 
Canadian Boy Did 
It All 

Mr. Hill did it all. He planned 
the road, got the money, he built 
the line and he managed it. He 
put new ideas into railroad and 
freight vessel building. Low grades, 
big engines, big cars, big boats, full 
loads both ways, were ideas that 
changed losses into profits. He got 

Putting His people to come into his 
Geography country, and made trade 
to Work where there was none. 

He knew every inch of his road— 
the climate, soil, plants, animals, 
water, crops and people. He knew 
every spike and tie, bridge and tun¬ 
nel and grade. He knew every man 


JAMES J. HILL 
James J. Hill, Scholar and Empire Builder 




Above you see Mr. Hill as he looked shortly before 
receiving an honorary degree from Yale University. 


Mr. 
est men, 


he employed. | 

He laid out the | 

town sites. On | 

a model farm | 

he showed oth- [ 

ers how to | 

grow wheat. | 

He bought | 

blooded ani- | 

mals and im- | 

proved the live | 

stock. He told | 

people how to | 

market their | 

crops and in- | 

vest their sav- | 

ings. He kept | 

freight rates as | 

low as possible. | 

In St. Paul he | 

trained young j 

men in his ideas | 

of railroading | 

He trained his | 

own sons to | 

carry on his | 

work. | 

Hill became one of our rich- | 
but he made new homes | 

and good livings for | 

millions of people. He | 

added untold wealth to | 

our country, and gave the world | 

more bread to eat. Only a Caesar | 

or Napoleon could show as great a | 
record as he. But military con- | 
querors always destroyed things and | 
then built on the ruins. Mr. Hill | 
tore down nothing. It was a wild- | 
erness, a waste empire, that he con- | 
quered and built up. Don’t you | 
think he deserved his nickname "Co- | 
lossus of Roads V* I 


4iT 7 99 

James J 
Empire 
Builder 


465 











44 \/'OU’LL all be proud of my 
JL Donald yet.” 

It’s mothers that say such things 
as that. A certain Mrs. Smith 
said it at a time when everyone 
else thought her son was doing 
something foolish. She was the 
mother of the little boy who af¬ 
terward became the great “Lord 
Strathcona.” They lived in a vil¬ 


lage in the north of Scotland, 
away back in 1838. Her son 
wasn’t “Lord” anybody then. He 

Young was j ust a n eighteen- 

‘Donald and year old boy named 
tie Books “Donald Alexander 

Smith.” His parents were poor, 
but Scotch people will educate 
their children if they have to live 
on oatmeal and turnips. Donald 


Strathcona, Canada’s “Grand Old Man" 


466 







































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii LORD STRATHCONA iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiit'« 


was studying law. Then his uncle 
John Stewart came home from Can¬ 
ada on a visit, and Donald’s whole 
life was changed. 

The Wild Country Back of the Great 

River 

Canada was just as big a place on 
the map then as it is today, but it 
wasn’t a country under one govern¬ 
ment. It had cities, towns and 

“Driving the 


Company to buy furs. These trad¬ 
ing forts were hundreds of miles 
apart. To reach them men had to 
travel by canoe and dog team. 

Donald’s uncle was a fur trader. 
What stories he told of bitter cold 
and wild flood, of fights with fierce 
animals, of hunts and camping with 
the Indians! It was a life of hard¬ 
ship and danger and loneliness, 
where no man got rich or was ever 

Golden Spike” 



It was fitting that Donald Smith, later to be Lord Strathcona, should drive the last spike in the 
rails of the Canadian Pacific Railroad he had worked so hard to build. By connecting the St. Law¬ 
rence cities with the Pacific, this railroad has done much for the development of Canada. 


farms only along the St. Lawrence 
River. The rest of it was wilder¬ 
ness. Tribes of Indians and wild 
animals roamed through the great 
forests and over the mountains and 
western plains. White traders lived 
in the log posts of the Hudson Bay 


heard of outside. But Donald 
wanted to go. 

When Donald Went Away 

His mother was sick and sad at 
heart. Perhaps she thought him 
foolish, too, but she said: “My son 


SlIlllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllM 


467 









PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


8 


1 -A Neighbor 
1 of the 
1 Polar Bear 


| is good, and he has an old head. He 
| will work hard and be honest, faith- 
| ful and brave. You’ll all be proud 
| of my Donald yet.” 

He became a clerk for the fur 
| trading company and was sent to 
| Labrador. That part of Canada is 

still called “the back 
door to the North Pole.” 
When Donald went 
| there many Eskimos and polar 
| bears lived along its pitiless shores. 
| He was paid only $ioo for the first 
| year’s work. He had a log cabin, 
| goods to trade with the Indians, and 
| for food, flour, pork and beans. 
| Only twice a year could he get letters. 
| He had to teach the stupid Indians 
| how to hunt. He brought comfort 
| and hope to them and made trade 
| where there had been none. No day 
| was too bitter, no journey or winter 
| too long, no task too hard for Don- 
| aid Smith. The Indians called him 
| “Spirit-of-Iron.” 

In the thirteen years that he stayed 
| in Labrador and in posts around 
| Hudson Bay, he had time to read 
| and write and think and hold his 
I A Man tongue, to face dangers 
| Who Stuck to unafraid and to hold to 
| His Purpose j^g p Ur p 0 se. In his old 

| age he was strong and tireless, fear- 
| less and silent, and he finished every 
| task he undertook. For thirty years 
| altogether, he was a fur trader in 
| the wilderness, but he climbed. 
| Wherever he wxnt he ruled his lit- 
| tie or big post wisely, increased 
| trade and dealt justly with the poor 
| Indians and white trappers. At 
1 forty-eight he was chief officer of 
| the Hudson Bay Company, com- 
| manding an army of traders in dis- 
| tant posts, from Montreal. 

In 1867 “The Dominion of Can- 
| ada” was formed out of the prov- 
| inces along the St. Lawrence. The 


new government then bought large g 
territories in the Northwest from the | 

Donald Hudson Bay Company. | 

Made a The fur traders on the | 

Prisoner Red Ri ver> now Mani- | 

toba, did not like this and some of j 
them rebelled. Donald Smith went | 
among them. He was made a pris- | 
oner, but he got them to give up j 
without fighting. He knew that the | 
fur company must move to wilder j 
lands and give up all the country | 
that could be used for farms and g 
cities. But settlers would not come | 
without railroads. So he joined Mr. ] 
J. J. Hill of St. Paul, Minnesota, in j 
pushing a railroad up to Winnipeg. | 
He saw, too, that if Canada was | 
ever to be a big nation, with many | 
people in it, and all its parts bound | 
together, it must have a railway j 
from Montreal to the Pacific Coast. | 
So he set himself the task of build- | 
ing the Canadian Pacific Railroad. | 
He did for Canada what Mr. Hill | 
did for the United States in building j 
Then They the Great Northern Rail- | 
Made Him road. It was his pluck, | 

a Knight hi s tireless work, his j 

honesty, his patriotism, his “spirit of j 
iron” that did it. The task was fif- | 
teen years long. When it was done j 
he was called to London to be made | 
Governor of the Hudson Bay Com- | 
pany, and to be knighted by the 1 
Queen. He was also Lord High | 
Commissioner for Canada—a sort of | 
ambassador. His railroad made him | 
rich. In 1897, he was made Baron j 
Strathcona and Mount Royal of | 
Scotland and Canada. | 

His mother knew him. The whole | 
British Empire became proud of her | 
Donald. Indians and fur traders, 1 
his company, his friends, his adopt- | 
ed country found him equal to every | 
task. Faithful in little things he 1 
was able to do all the big ones. 


«n 


468 



SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 


John Burroughs, Prophet of Nature 


“Come forth into the light of things. 

Let Nature be your teacher.” 

Wordsworth 


T HIS is the story of a man 
who was born on a farm. 
And when he grew up and could 
have become a rich banker, he 
went back to a farm. Other things 
were more important and interest¬ 
ing to him than making money. 
Guess what they were. Birds, for 
WhatKeft one thing; squirrels, 
John Bur- rabbits, wild bees; 
roughs Busy sunshine and storm; 

mountains, woods and water; 
rocks, and oh—all out-of-doors, 
and being alive and well, and un¬ 


troubled, and having time to think 
beautiful thoughts and to write 
them down for people to read 

When Mr. Burroughs Was a Little Boy 

Perhaps this isn’t so strange, 
after all. In Roxbury, New York, 
some one was sure to be born who 
would feel like that. 
It lay west of the wild, 
romantic Catskill 
Mountains, where Rip Van Win¬ 
kle had his strange adventure. 
What a boyhood his was! One of 


In the 

Romantic 

Catskills 



469 





























































♦ ♦ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

| those dear, barefooted, “little brown books as he had real 
| hands” boys. 

| “He drove home the cows from the 
| pasture, 

| Up through the long, shady lane. 

| He fished the mountain brooks, 


♦♦♦ 
♦ ♦ 


things. At twenty 
he read Emerson’s 
essay on Nature, and 



A Man with a Beautiful Soul 

“Other things were more important and interesting to him than mak¬ 
ing money . . . sunshine and storm; mountains, w T oods, and water; 

rocks and oh—all out-of-doors, and being alive and well, and untroubled, 
and having time to think beautiful thoughts and to write them down for 
other people to read.” 


swam in their pools in summer, and 
skated on them in winter. He coast¬ 
ed on the snow-clad hills, and fought 
merry, snowball battles. He knew 
the fox’s dens, the blue-bird’s nest, 
the song of the brown thrush. He 
Nutting and the squirrels went 

nutting in the same deep 
glens. He and the robins 
ate from the same scarlet feast of 
wood strawberries, and the wild bees 
shared their stores of sumac honey 
with him. 

The Booh of Nature and the Books at 

School 

He went to the village school and 
academy, but he had not so many 


with the 
Squirrels 


learned to see the 
earth and sky with 
the eye and mind 
and heart of a poet. At twenty- 
three, and that was in i860, he wrote 
an essay that was printed in the At¬ 
lantic Monthly. 

Then he had to do many things to 
make a living. He taught school, 
worked on newspapers, and was a 
government clerk in Washington. 
He was trusted so, and knew so much 
about banking that he was made 
bank examiner and receiver of a 
failed bank. If he had opened a 
bank himself, many people would 
have hurried to put their money in 


tti 


470 











































































































































IIM 

♦ ♦ 


JOHN BURROUGHS, PROPHET OF NATURE, 

I it. But, you see, he cared more “Birds and Poets,” and “Wintei | 
I about a lovely Nature book that he Sunshine.” And his books got him | 
| had written—“Wake Robin.” a nickname: “John o’Birds.” 


Yale University conferred the honorary degree of Doctor of 
Letters upon John Burroughs in 1910. Here we see him in his 
Doctor’s robe, just after receiving the degree. 


The Beautiful “Land of John Burroughs in His 
| Esopus” Woods 

| Having bought some 
| half wild land at Esopus, 

| New York, between the 
| Hudson and the Catskills, 

| he planted a fertile field 
| with celery and a rough 
| hillside with grape vines. 

| These would make enough 
| for his family to live on, 

| Harvesting and g ive him 

! the leisure for 

| Scenery writing. “I 

| planted myself with my 
| vines,” he said, “and left 
| room for the birds and 
| squirrels.” But it was 
| from the scenery that he 
| got his richest harvest. 

| The rocky gorge, the for- 
| ests, the ruined mill and 
| rustic bridge, the views of 
| mountains and river, and 
| all the wild creatures have 
| inspired a dozen books 
I with such dear titles as 



He lives in a gray and 
brown stone and shingle 
house that looks, inside 
and out, like a nest. His 
study room, called “Slab- 
sides,” is a single square 
room, faced with mill 
slabs, bowered in vines, 
like the trunk of an old 

Where AH tree. Birds 

Nature is and bees and 

at Home wasps and 

butterflies go in and out 
of the open windows. The 
squirrels come to the sills 
for grain and nuts. There 
the nature writer watches 
spring come up through 
the woods and the snow 
storm draw its veil over 
river and mountain. He 

A 'Reporter of writes of noth- 

“All Out ing but what 

Door s h e sees and 

thinks and feels, and in 
homely, rugged words. 
He is not a great natural- 




ist, but he is a very fine poetic one. 
He calls himself the watcher and 
reporter of woods and fields, of 
earth and sky. We know that he 
tells us only what is true and beauti¬ 


ful, and he tells it in such a way as | 
to make us love all out-of-doors with | 
him. | 

Aren’t you glad John o’Birds | 
had no time to get rich? 


All Things Beautiful 

All things bright and beautiful, 

All creatures great and small, 

All things wise and wonderful, 

The Lord God made them all. 

Each little flower that opens, 

Each little bird that sings, 

He made their glowing colors, 

He made their tiny wings. 

The purple-headed mountain, 

The river, running by. 

The morning and the sunset. 

That lighteth up the sky. 

The tall trees in the greenwood, 

The pleasant summer sun, 

The ripe fruits in the garden, 

He made them every one. 

He gave us eyes to see them, 

And lips that we might tell, 

How great is God Almighty, 

Who hath made all things so well. 

—Cecil F. Alexander 






472 






© Harper & Bros. 

The Boy, the Father of the Man 

It is rarely that we see such a striking resemblance between a boy of twelve and 
the same boy at sixty-eight. It is said that genius is simply boyish enthusiasm 
carried through one’s whole life work—and the life of Edison is a striking example. 


I T’S hard to think of a great 
man as having once been a little 
boy, with a little boy’s naughti¬ 
ness and dearnesses, and a nick¬ 
name, isn’t it? What do you 
thing his mother called the great 
inventor when he was her little 
boy? 

“Sobersides!” 

This is “Little Mr. Sobersides” 

She said he was a serious baby. 
He seldom laughed, because he 


The Tusy 
Toy who 
Forgot to 
Get Hungry 


was too busy. He watched every¬ 
thing with big, gray, wondering 
eyes, and he asked her millions of 
questions that she 
could not answer. A 
sturdy, active little 
fellow, his idea of fun 
was to get so interested in doing 
something that he had to be told 
when he was hungry and sleepy. 
His father had a shingle mill in 
Milan, Ohio, where he was born 
in 1847, and there was a canal 


Wizard Edison and His Work 


473 


































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii WIZARD EDISON AND HIS WORK ... 



railway station in Canada. There 
he experimented on sending more 
than one message at a time, and on 
a “repeater” that would take down 
the dots and dashes. Such a shabby 

Invention ~. bo y ! He spent his money 

of the on electrical books and 

“Ticker '' instruments. At twenty- 

one in New York, he repaired a 
“ticker” (ask papa what a “ticker” 
is) in Wall Street. Inventing an 

improved “ticker,” he got $40,000 

« 


and wharves, crowded with grain 
boars and farm wagons. In Port 
Huron, Mich., there was a public 
library. Wanting to know every¬ 
thing in the world, little Sobersides 
thought he would read all the books. 
He soon saw that was too big a job. 
At twelve he was doing a rushing 
business as a train boy. But he 
found time to print a little newspa¬ 
per, to set up a laboratory for ex¬ 
perimenting, in the smoking car, 


© Harper & Bros. 

No fond parent ever heard the earliest lispings of his baby with more delight than did Edison the first 
words from his phonograph. The picture shows him listening to its first speech after five sleepless days 
and nights perfecting it. 





| and to save the life of a station 
| agent’s baby. The grateful agent 
| taught him how to send telegrams. 

“How Does It Work?” Said Alva 

“How does it work?” Alva asked. 

“I don’t know,” answered the 
| agent. “You get up your speed to 
1 f- n j- ng take messages as fast as 
| “ How the anyone can send them. 
I That’s all you need to 

I know. 

“That’s easy. But I’ve got to know 
| how it goes.” So he worked on an 
| old battery in the cellar until he 
| understood. 

At fifteen he was in charge of a 


:: 


for it, and another nickname—“The | 
Boy Wonder of Wall Street.” He | 
also got a factory built by the West- | 
ern Union Telegraph Company, and | 
a big salary to put in all his time | 
inventing. | 

“What’s the Time?” “Time to Work!” j 

“I owe my success,” he once said, | 
“to the fact that I never had a clock j 
How in my work room.” And | 

Work would you believe it? j 

^y/ s j - There was not a clock in I 
W,zards the factory ! Three hun- | 
dred men worked as he did. Ah, | 
what a workshop! A chemical lab- | 
oratory, a library, a private secre- | 

:1 


474 









..iiiiiii.... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. . 



tary, a bookkeeper, a patent attorney 
to file papers in Washington,—fly¬ 
ing belts and wheels and lathes all 
run by electric power! There, in old 
clothes, with acid stained hands, and 
blinking like an owl if spoken to, 
“Sobersides” worked. Fifty inven¬ 
tions were going at once. At thirty 
he had a larger factory and had got 
another nickname—“The Wizard of 
Menlo Park.” Ten years later he 
had his enormous plant at Orange, 
New Jersey. Year 
after year he worked 
out his many wonder¬ 
ful electrical inven¬ 
tions. 

What Mr. Edison Said 
About “Genius” 

“O h, y e s,” you 
think, “but Edison 
was a born inventor. 

It was easy 

How to Be f or him.” 

a “Born T r 

Inventor ^ * Y ® ^ 

know the 
story of the incandes¬ 
cent lamp you know 
how long he worked, 
how many years and 
dollars he spent to 
give us the 
light that 
we turn on 
by pushing 
the button. 

And people 
laughed at 


him when he said he was going to 
make an incandescent, electric lamp 
in a closed glass bulb. But after a 
while they stopped laughing, and 
thought “the wizard” could do any¬ 
thing. He invented the “talking 
machine,” called the phonograph; 
the megaphone or sound magnifier 
that magnifies a shout on ball fields 
and at railway stations. Then they 
laughed when he said he was going 
to build a big house in a week by 

pouring concrete into 
iron moulds! And he 
did it, as you see from 
the picture. 

It is hard to be 
laughed at, you know. 
But Edison was too 
busy to pay any at¬ 
tention to the people 
who, at first, made 
fun of him. His elec¬ 
tric lamp 
A “Hally alone 

Old Age made hlm 

rich and 

famous enough for 
one man. But he 
went right on work¬ 
ing as hard as ever; 
ate when he 
was hungry, 
slept when 
tired and was 
as happy as a 
boy at a ball 
game. 


I This statue, which you have already seen in Mr. Edison’s library along = 

with his dictaphone and a model of his concrete house, is by the Italian 
I sculptor, Brodiga, and represents the triumph of Electricity over Gas. | 

H„I,. . . . . .I.I.....iiiiiiiiiiiiiii.I...... 


475 


Locating the South Pole 





In order to become an explorer. Captain Amundsen had to study astronomy. In the picture he 
is using the sextant to measure the length of the arc between two stars. From this he calcu¬ 
lated the position of the sun and his own location on the earth’s surface. The observation is being 
made during a halt in the march. One of his comrades is noting down the reports that he makes 
while the dogs are taking a rest in the harness and seemingly watching proceedings with interest. 







SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 


How “Roald” Wrote His Name 
On Both Ends of the Earth 


Here is Captain Roald Amundsen with four of his crew, on board the From, the ship upon 

which he sailed on his journey to the South Pole. 


H OW would you like to live 
in a gold mining town, 
away up on the Arctic Circle, in 
Alaska—a town of low, log 

A Hero Who h° uses ! strung along 
‘Droned Out the bank of the Yu- 
of the Sky kon River? And then, 

when you were all out skating, on 
a short, dark December day, to 
have a real hero drop from the 
sky? That is what happened at 
Eagle City in 1905. The hero 
was a blue-eyed blond giant over 
six feet tall. He was dressed in 
yellow seal skins, and he drove a 
string of yapping Eskimo dogs. 
Down the frozen flood his dog- 


team raced from the Canadian 
Rockies that towered to the 
clouds. 

“Captain Roald Amundsen of 
the steamship Gjoa, Christiania, 
The Name on Norway,” he wrote in 
the 'Register the hotel register. 

Everyone crowded around him. 

Only Seven Hundred Miles in the 
Arctics! 

“We heard you were lost. 
Where’s your ship? How did you 
get through? From the Macken¬ 
zie River! Seven hundred miles 
over mountains, in the dead of 
arctic winter!” “Haven’t got a 
frost bitten toe, nor lost a good 


477 












































































dog/’ the blond giant laughed. 

What a story for boys and girls 
to hear from a modern viking! 
He had done what your school 
histories tell you Sebastian Cabot 
tried to do in 
1497, and what 
many trained 
explorers and 
brave whalers 


had tried to do 

Like a Man 

since. 

Steffed Out 

H e 

of History 

had 

found 

the 


Northwest Pas¬ 
sage, and taken 
a vessel through 
it, from Hud¬ 
son Bay to the 
mouth of the 
Mackenzie Riv¬ 
er 

It was not 
luck. No diffi¬ 
cult thing has 
ever been done 
in that way. 
At the age of 


four- 
t e en 
the 
Norwe- 
went 
to sea to be a 
sailor. At the 


Brave 
Ambition 
of a Boy 

Danish 
gian boy 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

such an undertaking; a good boat, a 
picked company of men and money 
to buy supplies for severahyears. In 
six years Amundsen had the knowl¬ 
edge. But he had money only for a 

sixty-ton boat, 

The Discoverers of the Poles and supplies for 

eight men. 
Buying dogs in 
Greenland, i n 
June, 1903, he 
t o. sailed 

In oix 

Years W est- 

He “Passed" war d. 

Except that his 
boat was re¬ 
ported “crushed 
in the i c e, 
nothing more 
was heard of 
him until he 
anchored the 
Gjoa among the 
whaling fleet at 
Herschell Is¬ 
land. There he 
left it in the ice, 
and made the 
perilous jour¬ 
ney overland, 
with a dog team 
and a whaling 
captain. 

At thirty-five 
Captain Am- 
w a s 







> y = 


The fine, 

Robert E. 

£ discovered the North Pole. Captain Roald Amundsen, ,- xj • 

Ot twenty- who discovered the South Pole, is standing at the right. lamOUS. ills 


soldierly-looking man at the left is Admiral , 

Peary, the intrepid American explorer who U n Q S e n 


age 

five he was 

chosen for his strength, skill, hon¬ 
esty and keen mind, as one of a small 
company of explorers that tried to 
reach the South Pole. On his return 
from the expedition he sought the 
friendship and advice of Dr. Nan¬ 
sen, to learn what he had to do in 
order to become a successful explor¬ 
er of polar regions. 

Years of study were needed for 


book and lec¬ 
tures would have made him rich. 
But, having another task to do, he 
shut himself up with his books. The 
world had almost forgotten him 
when, in 1910, he headed an explor¬ 
ing party to find the South Pole. 
He steamed away on the famous 
ship Fravi that Dr. Nansen had 
taken farthest north. It was in 
October, 1911, when the seal and 


♦♦ 


*> 


478 




THE DISCOVERER OF THE SOUTH POLE 


IV* 


seabirds had come to land, in the 
southern spring, that Captain 

Amundsen left his winter quarters, 

The Great for the ei S ht hundred 

Dash for and seventy-five mile 

the Pole march to the pole. He 

had five men, four sledges, fifty-two 
dogs and food for four months. He 
had to cross a wide glacier, climb a 
steep mountain wall and traverse a 
plateau two miles high. It was ten 
degrees below zero, and the polar 
plains were swept by wintry gales. 

“December fourteenth when we 
reached the pole, and a beautiful 
day, bright and cold,” he wrote in 
his diary. “We named the plateau 
King Haakon Land. We raised a 

Planting tent that We ca H e d Pol- 

the Flag heim (Polar Home), 

at the Pole planted and saluted the 

Norwegian flag, and floated the pen¬ 
nant of the Fram —Good old Fram! 
She has gone farthest north and 
south. We returned to camp in 


thirty-nine days, almost fat, and | 
with eleven dogs that turned up | 
their noses at frozen seal meat.” 

A Second Discoverer of the South Pole 1 

Captain Amundsen had captured | 
the last prize of exploration. He | 
had been home several months when | 
he gladly shared the glory with an- | 

Sad Fate other man—a man who | 

of Brave had failed and died, | 

Ca^tam Scott w p ere h e h ac [ succeeded | 

and lived. Captain Scott of the | 
English exploration party, had | 
reached the South Pole too, a little | 
later than Amundsen, but had per- | 
ished on the return journey in a bliz- | 
zard. In his records he gave | 

Amundsen the honor of reaching the | 
pole first. Both explorers proved to | 
the world that no deed is as great as | 
the brave man who dares to do it; | 
that honor is higher than honors, and | 
that there is human courage that no | 
fate can daunt. 1 


The South Polar Regions 

The ship drove fast, load roared the blast, 

And southward aye we fled. 

And now there came both mist and snow, 

And it grew wondrous cold: 

And ice, mast-high, came floating by, 

As green as emerald. 

And through the drifts the snowy cliffs 
Did send a dismal sheen: 

Nor shapes of men nor beasts we ken — 

The ice was all between. 

The ice was here, the ice was there, 

The ice was all around: 

It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, 
Like noises in a swound! 

—Samuel Taylor Coleridge 



479 




© Brown Brothers 

“For Herself, She Was as Timid as a Mouse, for Others, as 

Brave as a Lion.” 


O NCE there'was a very little 
girl, and that means one who 
was undersized for her age. When 
she spoke she “lithped,” which, 
you know, is about the “thweet- 
eth” thing any little girl can do; 
but it embarrassed her very much. 
She was too bashful to ask for 
enough to eat or to tell her mama 
when her Sunday gloves were 
worn out. She cried herself sick 


over a funny mistake she made in 
pronouncing a word. When she 
grew up and taught school, the 
dear little children scared her. 

But She Was Not Afraid of Battles 

So, what do you suppose she 
did? Run away and live alone? 
No. She went right out on dread¬ 
ful battlefields, and stood behind 
roaring cannon. She cared for 


Angel of the Battle Field 


480 


































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin CLARA BARTON iiiiidiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiimMiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiffliJ5 


| wounded soldiers. Many a time she 
| had to climb on a trooper's horse and 
| fly for her life, with bullets patter- 
11 ing about her like hail. For fifty 
] Timid for years she lived amid 
| Herself, Fear- scenes of suffering and 
| u ”t° r ° th ' rs death. You see, for her- 
| self she was as timid as a mouse; but 
I for others, as brave as a lion. 


H The Girl Who Was Born on Christmas 

This little girl was Clara Barton, 
| first president of the American Red 
| Cross Society. She was born in Ox- 
| ford, Massachusetts, on Christmas 
| day of 1830. Babies born in that 
I “Boyhood ” c °ld winter were called 
| of Clara snow birds. Her two 

| Barton brothers and sisters were 

| grown up, when she came, so she had 
| no young playmates; but one brother 
| taught her to ride the wild colts on 
| the farm. A horse was one thing of 
| which she was never afraid. She was 
| a “Tomboy," too, when no one was 
| looking. She skated with boys, 
| climbed trees and jumped from the 
| haymow. She loved animals and 
| had c h i c’ke ns, turkeys, geese, 
| ducks, dogs, cats and canary birds 
| for pets. She was such a darling of 
| a teacher, and the children loved her 
| so, that she built up a school of six 
| hundred pupils, in Bordentown, New 
| Jersey. Then she went to be a clerk 
| in a patent office at Washington. 
| She read in the newspapers about 


Miss Florence Nightingale nursing g 
the soldiers in the far away Crimean | 
War. | 

An American Florence Nightingale 

When our own Civil War began, | 
in i860, she offered to do field nurs- j 
ing. Soon she was managing hospi- | 
tals and other nurses. Before the | 
end of the war General Butler made j 
her “The Lady in Charge" of the I 
“The Lady military hospitals. Then, | 
in Charge” by President Lincoln’s j 
order, she searched hospitals, prisons | 
and battle grounds, to find missing | 
soldiers, get those who were living, | 
home again, and mark the graves of | 
the dead. In 1870 she went abroad | 
and did field work in the Franco- | 
German war, and fed the starving in | 
Paris, after the long seige. 

In 1881 she organized the Amer- | 
lean Red Cross Society and was | 
elected its first president. For a | 
quarter of a dentury after that she | 

Organizing went wherever there was j 

the American suffering to relieve—af- | 
Red Cross ter banle> fir£| flood) | 

earthquake and yellow fever. But | 
she never got over being timid. | 
When eighty years old and of | 
world-wide fame, she said: 

“It makes shivers go up and down | 
my spine to address a meeting." 

Don’t you wish there were more | 
brave little scared girls like dear j 
Clara Barton? i 


When War Shall Be No More 

Down the dark future, through long generations, 

The echoing sounds grow fainter and then cease; 

And like a bell, with solemn, sweet vibrations, 

I hear once more the voice of Christ say, “Peace!” 

Peace! and no longer from its brazen portals 
The blast of War’s great organ shakes the skies! 

But beautiful as songs of the immortals, 

The holy melodies of love arise . H. W. Longfellow 



481 



SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 



“I was born in the Middle 
cruelty. And I have grown 
freedom, light, and hope.” 

Y ES, I know, Columbus dis¬ 
covered America—the first 
time. But every colony that came 
to our new land found it again, 
and to each one it meant some¬ 
thing different. To the Spanish, 
it meant conquest and gold mines. 
To the French, it meant adventure 
and missionary work in the wil¬ 
derness. To the English, it meant 
new homes in a free land. And 
did you ever think that every for¬ 
eigner who comes to us today dis¬ 
covers America all over again? 


Ages of ignorance, fear, and 
up in this modern world of 


At the immigrant station in Bos¬ 
ton harbor, there is a door with 
these words on it: “Push: to 
Boston.” Some days it swings all 

At tie Door day lon g to let in 
Marked newcomers. One day, 

4<j[) 1*» ' ' 

us nearly four hundred 

years after Columbus, a little 
Russian Jewish girl of eleven, 
pushed that door open. Her dark 
eyes sparkled; her body quiv¬ 
ered with happiness. Her name 
was Mary Antin. 

Father,” she whispered, “can 


((' 



































































^iiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH MARY ANTIN iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini^ 


no one throw mud at us? Or spit in 
our faces? Or soldiers push us back 
with guns? Or mobs break into our 
houses to kill and steal and burn?” 

“No, Mary, none of these things 
will be done to us in America.” 

“And we can go to school without 
paying—even girls?” 

“Yes, little one.” 

“Oh, dear mother, America’s the 
‘Promised Land’ of the Hebrews!” 
And Mary whirled her brothers and 
sisters in a gay dance, on the boat 
landing. A policeman on the corner 
smiled at her. 

You would have thought America 
a land of misery and terror, had you 
been in Mary’s place. The family 
was wretchedly poor, and went to 
live in the slums of Boston. And 
Mary could remember when they, 
had been well-to-do; they were even 
considered rich by their Russian 
neighbors. In Polotzk, Russia, 
where she was born in 1872, the 
mother had had a fine shop. The 
father had been educated for a 
Rabbi, or Jewish priest. Now the 
scholar turned peddlar, or ran a lit¬ 
tle peanut stand on the beach. 
Sometimes there was not enough to 
eat, or money for the rent in an old 
tenement. The only playground was 
a sidewalk. 

But they were free and unafraid. 
They did not have to live “within 
the pale” or Jewish quarter. They 
were not insulted or threatened. A 
mob destroyed their home and shop 
in Russia. Stripped of all their 
property they had fled to America. 

That Glorious Place, the School 

It was a wonderful September 
morning when Mary first went to 
school. Their father led the five 
children, as though he were taking 
them to a religious ceremony in the 


synagogue. The schoolhouse was a 
palace with gentle princesses for 
teachers. At eleven, Mary learned to 

The Palace read * At the end of a 

and the year she was in the 

Princess fourth grade. In three 

years she finished the grammar 

school, and went to the Boston Latin 
School. When there was no money, a 
Russian Jew who kept a tiny grocery 
in a basement, filled the little scholar’s 
glass lamp with oil. He let her have 
writing paper on credit. But he had 
no stamps. Sometimes Mary could 
not mail a letter at once. When she 
was sixteen she got a good many 
letters, from important Americans, 
for she had written a little book, in 
Yiddish, telling the story of her life. 
It-was translated into English. 

When she read American history, 
Mary wished she had lived here in 
Revolutionary days to fight for lib¬ 
erty. But there was nothing left to 
fight for. Her American school¬ 
mates told her so. When she grew 
older she learned that this was not 
true. The country had changed. In 
Washington’s time there were no 
big cities. No one was very rich or 
poor. Now, there are many new 
evils to be fought—poverty, disease, 
ignorance, vice, dishonesty in our 
public service. And sympathy and 
brotherhood must be widened to 
take in all the aliens who come to 
our shores. 

At seventeen, Mary married Mr. 
A. W. Grabau, a professor in Co¬ 
lumbia University, and a Gentile. 
Then she entered Barnard College. 
Mary's She h a d a little Amer- 
Promised ican daughter to love, 
Land and man y friends. She 

lifted her family above poverty. 
Then she wrote a book that she 
called “The Promised Land,” her 
name for the United States. 


Siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


483 



SOME OF THE 
WORLD’S HELPERS 



How Love Brought Light 
to Blind Helen Keller 


Miss Keller can enjoy sculpture better than any other form of art. The lines of the 
figures speak to her hands, revealing the thought of the artist, as truly as to our eyes. 
She reads character with her hands, too. She says the only sure way to judge a man is 
by his handclasp because we control our faces, hide our thoughts and check our speech, 
but we cannot change our hands. 


The most dreadful imprison¬ 
ment in the world is to be shut up 
alone, in a dark and silent cell. 
But no prison is as black and 

In Darkness hopeless as blindness, 
and as still as deafness. 

Silence you would not think 

that a tiny girl who was both deaf 
and blind could ever break out of 
such dreary loneliness into our 
world of work and play, would 
you! It is because she did this. 




that Helen Keller’s story is one 
of the most wonderful that ever 
can be told. 

And Once She Could See and Hear! 

When she was born in Tuscum- 
bia, Alabama, in 1880, Helen’s 
bright eyes saw the blue sky, the 
birds, bees and flowers of that 
sunny, southern land. Her baby 
ears heard her mother’s tender 
voice and the songs of the birds. 




484 


































































IIIII!!IIIII1!!1IIII1II11I1I!IIIIIIIII!II1IIIIIIIIIII1II!IIII!III11IIII1!II1!II1III1III||||||1I!II1I!II!I||!| 


HELEN KELLER 

talk a little when a year spelled other words, but Helen did 


♦,* 

♦♦ 


Then Came 
the Dreadful 
Fever 


world 
Her 


was 
voice 


old. Then scarlet fever made her 
deaf and blind. The only way the 
poor baby could know 
that she was not alone in 
a black and soundless 
to cling to her mother, 
was not gone, but she 
soon forgot what words she knew. 
She nodded her head for “yes.” 
When cold she shivered. When 
hungry she pretended to 
spread butter on bread. She 
learned that her mother could 
call others by moving her lips. 

Helen moved her lips, too, 
but no one understood her. 

This made her very unhappy. 
Sometimes, when her queer 
signs were not understood, she 
cried herself to sleep in her 
mother’s arms. Sometimes 
she kicked and screamed, in 
such terrible fits of anger that 
her parents feared she would 
lose her mind. 

Everything possible was 
done to make her happier. 

She had a jolly little dog. A 
colored child took her hand 
and ran with her to hunt eggs. 

She could gather flowers, 
grind coffee, turn the ice¬ 
cream freezer, string beads, 
pump water and feed the 
chickens. Then a new sister 
came. She loved to hold the 
soft, cuddly body, until she 
learned that even the helpless 
baby could call “mother.” At last 
Miss Anne Sullivan, a teacher of 
blind children, came to see if she 
could teach Helen. She came when 
Helen was six, and loved the little 
girl so that she never left her. 

Miss Sullivan gave Helen a doll. 
Into her hand she spelled d-o- 11 , in 
the deaf and dumb alphabet. She 


not understand what she was trying 
to do. One day when Helen was 
pumping, the teacher put her hand 
in the stream, and then spelled 
w-a-t-e-r. 

All at once she understood. This 
was the sign for “water.” “What is 
this, and this, and this?” She want¬ 
ed to know the signs for everything. 
Oh, how happy she was ! She could 

Two World Helpers Together 






Here is blind Helen Keller talking in hand-language 
to Joseph Jefferson, the famous actor, who was known 
all over the world for his impersonation of Rip Van 
Winkle. 


hardly sleep nights. She wanted to 
talk to this dear new friend and 
Joyous ask a thousand ques- 

Message the tions. She had a quick 
Signs Brought anc i ea g er m ind. When 

the one window to it—the window 
of touch—was opened, the whole 
glad world poured in. She learned 
to read with the raised let- 


♦v 


8 


485 





^iiniiiiiiiii!iiiiii!i!iii!iiliii!iiiiii!iii!iitiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiitiijiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii[iiiiiji!i!iiiiiiiii HELEN KELLER IliiuiiilUliiiiiiiM^^ 


| ter books of the blind. She learned 
| to speak, by touching the teacher’s 
| lips and throat. She could not hear 
| her own voice, but she knew others 
| heard. Her dog ran to her when she 
| called “Belle!” Her little sister’s 
| arms went around her neck when she 
| said : “I love you.” 

How Helen Went to College 

When she grew up she went to 
| college. It cost a great deal; all her 
1 jn. books had to be printed 

1 “ Listening ” in raised letters. She 
| the had to have a special 

| ectures typewriter. Her teacher 
| had to go, too, to repeat questions, 
| and report lectures by talking into 
| her hand. Her parents were not 
| rich people. A wealthy man paid 
| for everything. She took the full 
| course at Radcliffe, the Girl’s Col- 
| lege at Harvard University. Then 
| she was given a lovely home, and 
| money to live on, with her teacher. 

“But,” you think, “she could not 
| really do anything useful.” 

A Beautiful and Useful Life 

Oh, yes, she can. First, she wrote 
| the story of her life, and all about 
| how she felt in the darkness and si- 
| lence; and how her mind and heart 
| bloomed like flowers in sunshine, 
| when she began to learn. She has 
| written essays on the delicate sense 


of touch. By hugging a tree she can | 
feel it sing. She knows her friends | 
by the vibration of their different | 
r j. rn footsteps on the floor, i 

Sing and By laying her hand on a j 

Babies Laugh pi ano she can feel the | 

rhythm and volume of music. She | 
can read the speech of a few by j 
touching the lips and throat. Any- j 
one who knows the deaf and dumb | 
signs can talk and read into her | 
hand. She is quick at catching a | 
joke and laughs merrily. She loves | 
to feel a child laugh, and her little | 

How Helen dog bark. She speaks of | 
“Hears" colors and sounds as g 

Color though she heard them. | 

She writes like a poet, and her | 
mind is as pure as an angel’s. No j 
one has ever told her anything | 
evil. Yet she knows there are j 
sad things in the world that should | 
not be. She learned that much | 
blindness in babies is due to neg- | 
lect. So she writes and talks about j 
it. She gives the money she earns | 
by writing to help others. And | 
she helps them by showing how | 
beautiful and brave a human soul | 
can be, what difficulties it can over- | 
come; how the most afflicted can be | 
useful and cheerful. j 

Who that is making complaints | 
about the little things of life can | 
think of Helen Keller without feel- | 
ing ashamed? | 


ii 





486 




TITIAN 






TURNER 



LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCH OOL 

VISUAL INSTRUCTION 


The Use of Pictures in Teaching 



T HE mind comes to know the 
world chiefly through the 
sense of sight. It is estimated that 

Pictures tie eighty per cent of our 

First primary notions about 

Knowledge the things of the 

world come through the eye. 
“The eye is the window of the 
soul.” 

Not only do we acquire so many 
ideas through seeing, but ideas 
thus gained seem much more real 
to us and they certainly are also 
more exact and vivid. 

“Seeing is Believing” 

One may describe to you in 
words some strange creature like a 
coffer fish. You get a vague no¬ 
tion of what it looks like, but you 
feel that you w r ould like to see the 
animal itself or a picture of it. 
When you have seen it your im¬ 
pression becomes clear and defi¬ 
nite. You are satisfied that you 
know how it looks. 

Effect of Pictures on the Understanding 

The sense of sight is so impor¬ 
tant a factor in gaining knowledge 
that “to see through it” has become 
a figurative expression to indicate 

Seeing and that something is com- 
Understand - prehcnded. The 
teacher says, “Do you 
see?” He knows the thing under 
consideration is not before the 
eye. He only means to ask wheth¬ 
er you have a mental picture of 
the working of the object, or he 
wants to know whether the inci- 




RUBENS\>>^g 



dents of an event are passing 
through your mind in order as if 
they were actually taking place 
before you. Until you have a 
clear mental picture of a thing 
you have not really observed it. 

Impressions gained through the 
eye are the most lasting. 

“Sounds which address the ear 
are lost and die 

In one short hour; but that which 
strikes the eye 

Lives long upon the mind; the 
faithful sight 

Engraves the knowledge with a 
beam of light.” 

The impressions and ideas re¬ 
ceived need to be held in memory. 
Otherwise the mind is empty ex¬ 
cept for what is immediately pre¬ 
sented to it. Without memory you 
could not think at all, because you 
would not have at one time dif¬ 
ferent ideas to bring into thought 
relations. If the 
memory is weak or 
faulty, thinking will 
be loose and uncertain. If you 
wish to remember, you must make 
sure you get very clear, definite 
notions in the first place. The 
best way to do this is to observe 
very carefully. It will not do just 
to glance at an object or scene or 
picture and immediately pass on 
to something else. You must hold 
the mind closely to the details un¬ 
til a deep, clear impression is 
made; then the impression will be 
readily recalled. Try this with 


' REMBRANOT 


Importance 

of 

Memory 










CAINS 

&OROUCH 































= 

m 

= 

i 


= 

= 


= 

= 


= 





iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. . . 1111111 

How the Egyptians Fattened Geese 


Bas-relief in Egyptian Museum, Berlin. 


any of the pictures you are exam¬ 
ining and see if you do not find it so. 

Need of Visual Aids to Instruction 

There are so many interesting and 
important things in the world to be 
known that even the most favored 
persons cannot see them all directly. 
Only a few can travel extensively, 
and even these need some means of 
bringing objects, scenes and actions 
back to mind. There is a way by 
which the world, with its great vari¬ 
ety of natural scenery, industries, 
people, art and the wonders of 
science, can be brought to us. This is 
through pictorial reproductions and 
graphic representations of these 
things. Man’s very first way of 
making a record of ideas so others 
might get them was through picture 
writing. The early Egyptians 
carved many pictures on their tem¬ 
ples and the American Indians wrote 

Man and ° nl y in a si & n language. 

His Sign We can tell positively 

Language some of the customs of 
the Egyptians and the implements 
they used many centuries ago, by 
studying the pictures found on the 
monuments that have been preserved 
of their early civilization. 

Men have always been able to 
make drawings and paintings, but 
this was for a long time a slow pro¬ 


cess. The development of photog¬ 
raphy and the invention of various 
processes of printing pictures, have 
made it possible to produce them 
cheaply and to multiply copies of 
them, so that everyone can now have 
them in his own home to study and 
enjoy. We call such pictorial aids 
to knowledge “visual,” because it is 
through the sense of sight that we 
make use of them. 

Value of Pictures Compared with Words 

Language is one means of ex¬ 
pressing ideas. Pictures are another 
means. Each has its special advan¬ 
tages. We need them both, but pic¬ 
tures are the most direct aid to un¬ 
derstanding, hence they are coming 
to be so largely used in books. 
Words, whether spoken, written or 
printed, are only symbols of ideas. 
They have no meaning until real 
mental pictures are associated with 
them. Pictures represent things 
much better than words alone and 
are a more accurate and vivid means 
of expressing ideas. It is for these 
reasons that pictures have come to be 
so largely used not only in schools, 
but in all kinds of publications and 
in commercial enterprises. 

The First Illustrated Text-book 

It would seem strange now not to 


♦♦ 


490 




















........""". . .. VISUAL INSTRUCTION ft. . .ill........ . .. 

From the First Picture Book | 

The Clouds. VIII. Nubes. I 


Vapor , i. ascend it ex 
Aqua . 

Inde Nubes , 2. 
fit, et Nebula , 3. 
prope terram. 

Pluvia , 4. 
et Imber , 
stillat e Nube , 
guttatim. 

Quae gelata, Grando , 5. 
semigelata, AY.r, 6, 
calefacta, Rubigo est. 

In nube pluviosa, oppo¬ 
site soli /m, 7. apparet. 

^toincidens in aquam, 
facit Bullam , 8. 
multae Bulled faciunt 
spumam, 9, 

Aqua congelata 
Glacies, 10. 

Ros congelatus, 


A Vapour , 1. ascendeth 
from the Water . 

From it a Cloud , 2. 
is made, and a white Mist , 
3. near the Earth. 

Rain, 4. 

and a small Shower distil- 
leth out of a Cloud , drop 
by drop. 

Which being frozen, is 
Hail , 5. half frozen is Snow, 
6 . being warm is Mel-dew. 

In a rainy Cloud, 
set over against the Sun 
the Rainbow , 7. appeareth. 

A drop falling into the 
water maketh a Bubble , 8. 
many Bubbles make 
froth, 9. 

Frozen Water is called 
Ice , 10. 

Dew congealed, 



























































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦ # 


= “Books 


have any illustrations in our books, 
but it was not so very many years 
ago that the first text-book was 
printed that contained pictures. 

There once lived a man who was a 
great teacher and thought much 
about the way to give boys an edu¬ 
cation (girls did not then attend 
school). His name was Comenius. 
He noticed that his pupils did not get 
the meaning of the words they mem¬ 
orized and that they were not much 
interested in their studies. It seemed 

The Father to Comenius that his pu- 
of Picture pils should be learning 
about things themselves 
and that there was a better means 
than words for presenting objects to 
the mind. At last, in 1657, he pub¬ 
lished the first illustrated text-book, 
called the Orbis Pictus, that is, “The 
World Pictured/’ The book was a 
very marked change from those pre¬ 
viously in use and it soon became 
very popular. One page just as it 
appears in the second edition, pub¬ 
lished in London in 1659, is repro¬ 
duced on the opposite page. 

Note that the picture is accom¬ 
panied by a description in Latin and 
the vernacular, that is, the language 
of the common people. The first 
edition, published in Nuremberg, 
w r as printed in Latin and German. 
The second edition is in Latin and 
English. The page shown illustrates 
some of the different forms of water. 
Note how much information is given 
in a little space and how much the 
picture, crude as it is, helps to give 
meaning to the words used. Comenius 
tells how the vapor ascends from the 
water and from it a cloud is made, or 
sometimes a mist, which is similar to 
a cloud but hangs near the earth. So 
he goes on through the list of forms. 
He numbers the names of the differ¬ 
ent forms and puts the figures on the 


corresponding parts of the picture. 
Perhaps you know some Latin and 
can read the second column. 

Comenius said that his object in 
using pictures in this book was to en¬ 
tice children to learn, to stir up the 
attention and to present things so 
they could be comprehended through 
the sense of sight rather than 
through words alone, which he 
found were memorized without un¬ 
derstanding. 

Learning to Interpret Pictures 

But remember it is the mind and 
not the eye that really sees. The eye 
is merely an optical instrument that 
brings light from an object to the 
brain. The eye presents to the mind 
much that is very interesting, but 
the mind must give close attention 
to the various features of the object 
and must react upon them. The aim 
should be to form a correct mental 
picture corresponding to the thing 
or the picture presented to the eye. 
If you are satisfied with vague im¬ 
pressions, you can never be a good 
observer. It is necessary to hold 
the attention to the object for some 
time and to put forth some effort to 
note the several parts shown, their 
size, position, form, color and ar¬ 
rangement. 

You cannot at first see a picture as 
a whole. You must begin with some 
part of it. When you understand 
this part, you may pass on to an- 
How to other and then to still 

Observe another. Learn to ob- 

Accurately serve a picture in an or¬ 
derly way and to bring your obser¬ 
vations together into some significant 
groups. In this way you can acquire 
the ability to think. 

Some persons succeed better than 
others in this world because they 
have learned how to use their eyes. 


♦.♦1 

•v 


♦♦ 


492 



^ From the statue in the Vatican, Rome. 


The Daughter of Niobe 


493 















giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiii... IIIIIIII .mi PICTURED KNOWLEDGE uiiiniiiiii^ 


Not every one becomes educated by 
attending school. Some persons who 
have had few opportunities offered 
by the schools get the greatest enjoy¬ 
ment out of life and are very help¬ 
ful to others because they early 
formed the habit of making intelli¬ 
gent observations and thinking about 
what they see. 

Pictures are attractive. How in¬ 
teresting they are! There is a 
temptation to turn over the pages to 
find others. But one should not be 
content merely to look at pictures one 
‘Reading after another in a super- 

the Picture ficial manner. First you 

^ irst should examine them 

closely to note just what they show, 
and when you have interpreted them 
the best you can with the knowledge 
and training you have, then you 
should read the text for suggestions 
and explanations. You will, per¬ 
haps, be surprised when you have 
done this reading to find how much 
more there is in the picture than at 
first you thought. 

Exercises in Observing Pictures 

Test yourself by the accompanying 
pictures to learn how much ability 
you have to observe and interpret 
them. In each case examine the 
picture carefully before you read 
what is said about it. Find out what 
different things you see represented. 
Note the several parts and the form, 
position and size of each. Observe 
how the parts are related to each 
other. See if you can tell what use¬ 
ful purpose is served by the different 
things shown. Try to explain the 
meaning of everything you see. 
Then read the text immediately fol¬ 
lowing the picture. When you have 
done this, reading very thought¬ 
fully, examine the picture again. 
You should find it easier and more 


enjoyable to study in this way the 
later pictures than the first one, 
though some of them are really more 
difficult to explain. 

A Typical Holland Farm Yard 

Perhaps your attention is taken 
first of all by the people in the pic¬ 
ture. Note that there are three 
women, two boys and a small child. 
Each woman has a scarf about the 
neck. In two cases the scarf is 
crossed over the breast. How many 
of the women wear a peculiar, tight- 
fitting white cap on the head? What 
odd clothes the boys wear! If you 
have noticed these and other pecu¬ 
liarities of the appearance of these 
persons, you have learned one im¬ 
portant set of facts shown by the 
picture. 

Now study the buildings. The 
barn has an unusual roof made of 
thatch. It is not a very large barn 
and the farmer who owns it pro¬ 
vided another means of protecting 

Things to P art °f his hay. A roof, 

See in This also made of thatch, is 
Picture supported by tall posts. 

This roof over the hay was raised as 
the stack became higher. Why do 
you think so? Are you quite sure 
you have noticed how many sides 
there are to the stack? How many 
surfaces has the roof? How many 
posts must there be? What makes 
you think there are more than four 
of each? 

The house in which the family 
lives is apparently quite small and is 
made of brick. It is common for 
houses in the city to be made of 
brick or stone, but this is evidently a 
country home. One may conclude 
that bricks are common in Holland 
if even the farmhouses are made of 
them. 


Examine the wagon. How many m 

Siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 


494 



VISUAL INSTRUCTION 

A Farm Yard in Holland 


♦ ♦ 


wheels has it? Can you tell by how 
many horses it is drawn? Did you 
see the dog in the picture? Is the 
sun at the right or at the left of the 
farmyard? How clean and neat 
everything about the yard looks! 

Clay and Sand Deposits, at 
Roseton, N. Y. 

Next is another picture that is 
very instructive if you read it right¬ 
ly. Look first to note the different 
parts of the picture. Remember that 
objects, form, structure and relative 
position are indicated in a picture by 
light and shade and by lines of dif¬ 
ferent character and direction. Do 
you see a thin layer at the surface of 
Mother the eai *th? That is soil 
Earth’s formed by the action of 

Layer Cake pp e a j rj f r0 st, rain and 

vegetable growth. Below the soil 
note a thicker layer. It is sand. 


Still farther down is a great mass | 
that seems to be of a different struc- | 
ture. It is made up of fine, smooth | 
material arranged in thin sheets and | 
it is separated at intervals by seams | 
running horizontally. This mass is | 
clay. | 

Now try to interpret the meaning | 
of this picture. Many ages ago j 
when this part of the. earth was cov- | 
ered with water, the fine particles of | 
clay settled in even layers on the j 
floor of what was probably an arm | 
of the sea. Then some great change j 
occurred in the level of the ocean | 
floor, and in surface conditions north | 
of this area. Great glaciers were | 
grinding up granite rocks and sand- j 
stone into fine grains, and as the ice | 
which carried them southward melt- | 
ed, the sand was laid down in an | 
even bed over the clay. Still later | 


495 






&iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE llllllOlfliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiM^ 


Clay and Sand Deposits 


the soil was formed by the agencies 
named above. 

These beds, which are found all 
along the Hudson Valley, are now 
the basis of a great-brick making in¬ 
dustry. Bricks are made from clay 
and sand. Nature has here deposited 
these materials in just the right pro¬ 
portion. Compare the thickness of 
the clay and the sand layers. 

You can learn further from the 
picture how the clay is taken out. 
See if you can tell why the clay is 
worked out by tiers as shown in the 
picture. 

What a lot of information is thus 
to be gotten from a very simple pic¬ 
ture that does not at first attract 
much attention! Those who have 
not learned how to observe would 
probably pass such a picture by with 


a mere glance of casual interest. 

Pictures Challenge Thought 

Pictures can be used effectively to 
challenge thought. Gaining infor¬ 
mation only is not enough for the 
student or the man of affairs. Teach¬ 
ers often complain that their pupils 
do not think. How are they to learn 
to think, when the school exercises 
consist very largely of giving out in¬ 
formation through words! Very 
often these words produce no clear 
mental picture. If the facts are re- 

How Pictures membered at all, the 
Make You pupils have in mind lit— 
Th,nJi tie more than the phrase¬ 

ology they have learned. The ability 
to reason is acquired, not so much by 
repeating reasons given by others, as 
by practice in reflecting on what is 
seen. Avoid, therefore, looking at 


ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 





^n!ni!ii!hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiii!iLi!iiiiiiiii!i , iiii!iiiiiiH!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii VISUAL INSTRUCTION liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiliiiiiiiilliiiiiiiiii^ 

| A July Day in Australia 1 



This is a view of Mount Kosciusko, “The Roof of Australia,” in New South Wales, from a photo¬ 
graph taken in July. 


| pictures in an aimless way. Every 
| good picture presents a problem in 
| thinking. There is something to ac- 
| count for. Do not allow yourself to 
| pass on until you have at least begun 
| the solution of some problem. 

| A Day in July 

Had you thought of Australia as 
| having snow? Besides, this picture 
| was made in July when we in Amer- 
| ica are sweltering with heat. How 
| do you account for this scene? The 
| mountain is only 500 feet high. 
| This picture should lead you to turn 
| to a map and to apply some facts 
| you have already learned about di¬ 
ll mate. The mountain is in about the 
| same latitude as Sydney. 

The First United States Mint 

| A problem 
8 11111111111111111 


the building was photographed. 
The picture itself tells when the 
building was first used for a mint. 
Of course, the United States had 
only one mint at this time and it 
would naturally be at the seat of 
government. If you do not know 
where the seat of government was 
located in I 792, turn to your history. 
In this way you acquire information 
for a purpose and by your own 
effort. 

The picture also helps give a true 
idea of the relative smallness of our 
country’s finances at the time. 

Pictures of Things that are Types 

Some pictures represent types of 
objects or scenes. They stand for 
what is common and not unusual; 
things that are to be found in many 
different places, or they may be char- 


here is to infer where 
....iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii .........win.11111. . 


497 








Where Are We Now? 



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Suppose you were suddenly dropped down in front of this old building, could you tell where you 
were? Do you remember where the seat of government was in 1792? Of course there is where 
you would find the mint. Is there a mint in this same town today? Where are the other mints? 


fT~ 


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498 














































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinn VISUAL INSTRUCTION niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH 

| The Story of Two Valleys I 


A. The Young Valley 


| acteristic of a whole people or coun- 
| try. Many of the pictures in this 
| book are of this sort. 

It is well known that the erosion 
| of water is constantly changing the 
| surface of the earth. A small stream 
| begins to wear its way into the earth. 
| First it cuts deeper and deeper and 
| forms a V-shaped valley like A. As 
| it gets older, it carries away more 
1 and more soil at the sides. The val- 
! ley becomes wider and takes the 
| form of the letter U as in B, having 
| a small fertile plain on either side of 
I the stream. We call the former a 


young valley, the latter an old one. | 
It is very important that such pic- j 
tures be recognized as representing a | 
class rather than a particular place. j 

Objects of Interest for Their Own Sake = 
Represented by Pictures | 

On the other hand, some pictures j 
are to be studied for their own sake. | 
The particular object is, itself, the | 
thing that is of interest and impor- | 
tance. | 

This is true of such a feature of | 
natural scenery as the Matterhorn, a | 
famous mountain of Switzerland. j 
Not to know about this remarkable | 


) > 
> * ) 


499 









&III1IIHIIIIIIIIIIIII1II1IIIIN PICTURED KNOWLEDGE Biiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiinn^ 

—• s 


The Matterhorn 



1 peak is evidence of ignorance of the f be seen either in the original or in a | 

good picture. 

Pictures in Literature §| 

ea 

The proper place of pictures in i 
literature needs special considera- | 
tion. They should never take the | 
place of the words of the writer. | 
Literature gives by itself a word pic- | 
ture and one must endeavor to get | 
the thoughts and feelings of the au- I 
thor through the rich language used, | 
which often is figurative. 

Pictures are not needed to carry a | 
story; sometimes they are helpful in I 
description, as when the scene pre- | 
sents what is altogether unfamiliar, | 
but even here the mental picture 1 
should be gotten so far as possible 1 
from the words of the writer; for 1 

..niimiiiiiiimnnimiimiiiiimiiiimnimninnimimiiminmiiiiiiiiiniiimnimiiimiimiiiimiiiiimiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiumiii^ 


| world’s great natural scenery. To 
| have seen, and especially to have 
| climbed the Matterhorn is a matter 
| of pride with tourists. 

In the same way one wants to 
| know for its own sake a beautiful 
| piece of sculpture like the statue of 
| the Daughter of Niobe now in the 
| Vatican, Rome. It represents the 
| skill and imagination of a great 
| Greek sculptor. To know this statue 
| is like being familiar with Tenny- 
| son’s The Brook or with any other 
| important work in literature. 

No verbal description can give a 
1 correct idea of the Matterhorn or of 
| this piece of sculpture. To be un- 
| derstood and appreciated they must 


500 


* 

i 


* • 


' < 

< Hi 







literature appeals to the imagination 
and the aim is not scientific accu¬ 
racy. 

Pictures are often useful in mak¬ 
ing one acquainted with the writer 
and his environment The home and 
associations of an author influence 
his writings. 

Every reader is somewhat familiar 
with the delightful writings on na¬ 
ture by John Burroughs. Did you 
ever stop to consider where and how 
he lives? Perhaps the picture of the 
The Home place where he does most 

of John of his writing will help 

Burroughs you know the man 

better and love him more. You can 
easily imagine him day after day 
looking out upon the beautiful Hud¬ 
son River, the Catskill Mountains 
forming a fitting background. His 
study is a small structure of one 


room, and trom its windows he can 
look up and down the valley. 

The vineyard at the right is his 
and he also has many trees about the 
place. Back in the mountains he 
has cabins to which he often goes 
both in winter and summer. Is it 
any wonder he writes on nature 
when he ! is so surrounded by its 
beauties and wonders! 

Perhaps, too, our pictures of the 
man and his home will make you 
want to read more of his accounts of 
wild woodland life. 


Reproductions of Paintings 

Rosa Bonheur was a wonderful 
painter of animal pictures. How 
could most persons ever really know 
them if it were not for good repro¬ 
ductions? Almost all art would be 
denied to most of the world except 

John Burrough’s Study, Near West Park, N. Y. 


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|£iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiu PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iniiiininiiiiirauumraiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiraiiraiiiiiiiniraumiiuirani^ 

Deer in the Forest I 



Painted, by Rosa Bonheur. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 


for these reproductions in books and 
elsewhere. As it is, you can readily 
learn how to study and enjoy them. 

What do you see in the picture of 
the deer in the forest? Much more 
is expressed than the form of the 
animals, though this is remarkably 
well shown. Continue to look at the 
picture. L.et the eye penetrate the 

Studying the Woods. How Still it 
Forest seems! How does the 

Scene artist create this impres¬ 

sion of stillness? The very ground 
seems carpeted with soft vegetation 
that is noiseless when the deer move. 
Two of the deer are very quiet and 
undisturbed. But one animal stands 
on guard. Its position shows that it 
is listening. How quickly the deer 
would get away if the guard heard 
any sound of danger. Probably you 


will see still other things in the pic¬ 
ture. It is certain that the more you 
study it in this way the better you 
will like it. 

Try for yourself to see what the 
artist intended to express by the pic¬ 
ture on the next page. What class of 
people is represented? What is the 
relation of the several persons to one 
another? What is their occupation? 
Was a balloon a common sight for 
them? Try to describe their feel¬ 
ings. What do you think about the 
way the artist has drawn the figures 
and placed them in the group? Why 
did he make the distance appear so 
indistinct? How does each of the 
two clusters of tall trees help the 
picture? 

Pictures of Architecture 

It is quite impossible to form a 


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502 









I".... 1 .VISUAL INSTRUCTION .. in ........... in,,,,,,,,,, .,„j 

I The Balloon 



© Painted by Julien Dupre. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 


correct notion of a Greek temple, a 
Gothic cathedral, or any other piece 
of architecture, without seeing it or 
one or more pictures of it. There are 
verbal descriptions of Solomon’s 


Temple, but no one has yet been able 
to produce a satisfactory drawing to 
represent it, because there are no 
remains of it or pictures made while 
it was standing. 


SlilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllM 


503 










PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Home of Edward Everett Hale 




How much the photographic re¬ 
production of the temple at Paestum 
tells of the appearance of the temple 
itself! You can be sure just how the 
columns look. You feel certain 
about its pediment and entablature. 
The picture impresses upon the mind 
the fine proportions of the building 
constructed by the Greeks in Italy, 
500 B. C., as no words could do. 

If you really learn through obser¬ 
vation and study one important type 
of architecture like the Doric of the 
Temple of Neptune at Paestum, it 
will be a constant source of enjoy¬ 
ment to find the type represented in 
modern buildings. Carefully com¬ 
pare the Sub-treasury Building in 
New York with the temple at Paes¬ 
tum. How few important differ¬ 
ences can be found! 

All over the United States there 


are custom houses, banks and other 
public buildings and even private 
houses that make use of features of 
Greek architecture. Often it is the 
Q ree \ Ionic type as in the Hale 

Building at House. Compare the 
Home capitals of the columns 

in the three pictures. When you go 
upon the street of your city or vil¬ 
lage, see how many Greek elements 
you can find in the buildings you 
pass. 

In the same way you can come to 
know Romanesque, Gothic and other 
kinds of architecture. 

Selection and Use of Pictures for History 

Study 

In the case of pictures to illustrate 
history it is especially important to 
know when, how and by whom they 
were made. A drawing or painting 


&IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH 


504 












































♦Jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiin VISUAL INSTRUCTION iiuuiiiiuiuiJii™^^ 

The Temple of Neptune 


The Subtreasury Building in New York 




505 





















































ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE biiiiiiiiiiii^ 

| made contemporary with an event or 
| scene has a different value than one 
| made long after. A portrait painted 
| from life by a good portrait painter 
| is worth much more than one made 
| by some unknown illustrator. A di- 
| rect photographic reproduction of an 
| object of historic interest is more 
| convincing than a drawing. In short, 

| one looks for evidence that the pic- 
| ture really furnishes some direct, 

| authentic connection with the past. 

1 Note that each of the following 
| pictures represents a different type. 

| The Norse, or Northmen, are 
| known as sea rovers. Long before 
| the time of Columbus they had ven- 
| tured far out on the ocean and it is 
| generally believed they reached 
| America about the year iooo. 

| This boat helps us to understand 
| that they might have done so. It 
| was made of heavy oak and was 78 
| feet long and 16 feet wide. Note 


A Norse Ship 



This ship was built by the Norsemen about the year 1000. 


the excellent lines of the boat, indi- j 
eating the knowledge and skill of the | 
Northmen in boat building. The | 
nearer end of the boat is the stern. | 
The picture shows the steering j 
board, or rudder, which was regu- | 
larly placed on the right side, giv- | 
ing the name starboard to this side | 
of a ship. The two upper planks | 
are missing, the third has holes | 
through which the oars, 16 on the | 
side, were placed. | 

There are many other interesting | 
features of this boat. It was found | 
buried under a mound of earth in | 
Southern Norway. It was uncovered | 
and moved to Christiania in 1880. 

The flutes, bark horn, rattles and | 
drum help one to think of the Indian | 
as something besides a warrior and | 
a hunter. But you will notice these | 
instruments are quite different in | 
their construction from those of the | 
white man. They seem like very | 












^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiln VISUAL INSTRUCTION iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniliiiiiiiiiil^^^ 


ifoot 


Indian musical instruments, from the collection of Iroquois relics, in the New York Education 
Department at Albany. 


rude instruments. They show, 
however, that the Indian was a social 
being. Music was much used in 
his dances and religious ceremon¬ 
ies. But with the Indians, as with 
all partly civilized people, time or 
rhythm was far more important 
than tone or harmony. 

The scale is given because size is 
often an important element in the 
mental picture. 

At the middle of the Seventeenth 
Century the lower end of Manhattan 
Island, now such an important part 
of New York City, looked very 
much as shown by the painting by 
E. L. Henry. There was much need 
for this fort, for the enemies of Hol¬ 
land \yere very jealous of her. Note 
that the church and other buildings 
of a public character were inside the 
fort. The houses with their tile 


roofs and strange gables look quite 

different from those of old Boston. 

The Dutch brought their own type 

H ow of architecture with 

New York them from Holland. 
Once Looked Hqw the wind mill> too> 

reminds one of Holland! At the 
left is a wall of heavy posts, a stock¬ 
ade. This was to protect the young 
city on the north, especially against 
the hostile Indians. Wall Street, a 
synonym for the greatest money 
market of America, now runs along 
the line of this early “wall.” The 
picture also shows Indian traders 
with their canoes. New York began 
as a trading post and has ever since 
been of commercial importance. 

This picture is quite different 
from a view of Boston. It was 
painted by a person who had never 
seen New Amsterdam, hence, it is 


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^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw PICTURED KNOWLEDGE . .iiiiiiniiiiiiimmiiinnniiinmiiiiiiimiimimiiraniminig 


This is lower New York City as it looked when it was “New Amsterdam.” The picture is from 
a painting by E. L. Henry and is used by courtesy of The Title Guarantee & Trust Company of 
New York. 



The Beginning of New York City 


..I**.;:?#®::- 


somewhat imaginary. But the paint¬ 
er is known for his ability to pro¬ 
duce historical pictures that are ex¬ 
pressive and true in essential re¬ 
spects. 

Study the next picture as a work 
of art and a historical illustration. 
Note and describe accurately each 
article of dress. Can you tell the 
special office of some of the men in 
the colony? Associate this picture 
with a view of Boston as showing 
devotion to the church. Do not fail 
to learn the time represented. The 
scene is not true for the whole co¬ 
lonial period, but represents the year 
during which King Philip and his 
Indian bands were terrorizing the 
country districts. 

Summary for Parents and Teachers 

Pictures are useful for entertain¬ 
ment and for serious instruction. 
The latter use is the more important 


one and it involves training. 

The basis of visual instruction is 
genuine observation with discussion. 

The following are some of the ad¬ 
vantages that will come from the 
use of pictures in instruction : They 
awaken interest. They may be used 
as a direct incentive to reading and 
other forms of effort. They furnish 
a means of forming clear, vivid, and 
lasting mental impressions. Properly 
used, they are a direct and most 
effective means of training the judg¬ 
ment and the reasoning power. They 
help to give content to words. They 
aid the memory. They are the only 
means by which some objects, such 
as great works of art, for instance, 
can be faithfully presented to the 
minds of most persons. 

Correct, vivid mental impression 
is essential, but accurate, pleasing 
expression is no less important. The 
latter is a true test of the former. 


... .. 


508 






Painted by George H. Broughton. 

are made in an orderly way, sen¬ 
tence structure and paragraphing 
will present few difficulties. 

Seeing pictures with the physical 
eye alone is insufficient. It is the 
mind that visualizes. A person must 
learn how to read, or interpret, pic¬ 
tures. 

Visual instruction is always ask¬ 
ing the questions: Where? What 
form? How large? What relative 
position? What color? What pur¬ 
pose? Let pupils observe or infer 
the answers. So far as possible, 
avoid telling them. 


New York Public Library. 

teacher should not say to a pupil, 
“Tell all you can about this picture.” 

A few suitable pictures carefully 
studied are much better than many 
merely looked at without plan or 
purpose. 

The pictures on the wall, as well 
as those in books, at home and in the 
school have a molding influence on 
children both by the information 
they convey and by the feelings they 
arouse. . 

Not all pictures have educational 
value. They need to be carefully 
selected and rightly used. 


VISUAL INSTRUCTION 

1 Pictures are aids of the best sort in 


the teaching of oral English. It is 
comparatively easy through them to 
have pupils use words with precision 
and to express with exactness what 
they have observed. If observations 


The use of pictures in instruction 
should be regarded not as an extra 
labor, but as a more effective means 
to an end. 

Have a definite purpose in the 
study of every picture. Generally, a 


Puritans Going to Church 


509 






Which Is the Best Ear? 




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TH E WO RLD AT ITS WORK 

THE CORN INDUSTRY 


What King Corn Does for Us 


and 


What Some Boys Did for Him 




This is Jerry Moore of Florence County, South Carolina, and the 228 bushels of corn 
that he raised on one acre. 


C ORN is an American plant. 

It is the “maize ear” of the 
Indians. When white people 
came to America to live they did 
not know how to use it. The In¬ 
dians taught them to make hom¬ 
iny, and to parch and pound the 
grains. Then the white people 
built mills and ground the corn 
into meal to make mush and 
bread. They used the grain to 
m W7 tv feed their horses, 
Biggest cows, pigs and chick- 

Corn Crib e nS. Now We grow 

more than twenty-five hundred 
million bushels of corn every 
year. That is four-fifths of all 
that is grown in the world. And 
most of the rest of it is raised in 


Mexico and South American 
countries. So, you see, it is the 
great American crop. The east¬ 
ern half of our United States is 
a big corn patch. From May to 
November, no one can take a rail¬ 
way journey from New York to 
central Kansas, or from Iowa to 
Georgia or Texas without riding 
through hundreds of miles of 
green or yellow corn fields. 

The newspapers do not say as 
much about the corn crop, direct¬ 
ly, as they do about wheat. That 
is because the wheat is all sent to 
market to be sold, but much of the 
corn is fed to animals on farms. 
But if the corn crop is small, the 
papers say: “Beef and pork will 




























































Earl Hopping, an Arkansas boy, belonged to a corn club. He couldn’t get the use of a horse 
to plow his land so he asked his best goat to help him, and of course the goat did. Together they 
raised so much corn (an average of 80 bushels to the acre), that if every farmer in America did as 
well, the United States alone would grow as much corn as is now grown in the world, and leave a 
billion bushels over! 


be higher priced.” Milk, butter 
cheese, poultry and eggs are likely 
to be higher, too. Your mama and 
papa know how the prices of all 
those things have been going up—up 
—up, and never coming down. 

How the Boys Helped Out Uncle Sam 

That has been worrying “Uncle 
Sam”—the government in Washing¬ 
ton City. In the department that 
helps farmers it was known for 
years that if the corn crop could be 
doubled there would be more food at 
less cost, and the farmers would 
make more money. The farmers were 
told how they could grow fifty bush¬ 
els of corn on an acre, instead of 
twenty-five, with no more labor or 
expense, but few of them listened. 
Why f 

Their minds were stiff. As men 
grow older their muscles are less lim¬ 
ber, and their brains do not readily 


take in new ideas. With boys it is 
just the other way. They run at the 
word “Go!” And they are eager to 
try new things. So Uncle Sam said: 

“Let’s get the boys interested. 
We’ll have corn clubs, and see which 
boys, following our advice, can grow 
the most and best corn on an acre of 
land.” 

Fifty thousand boys, from twelve 
to sixteen years old, entered the race. 

50,000 *Boys !t be g an in September 
on the First and lasted a whole year. 
Corn Roll When the corn was ripe 
in their father’s field a printed letter, 
or bulletin, was sent to the boys from 
Washington, saying: 

“Gather seed corn before a hard 
frost.” They were told to gather 
long, fat ears from tall strong stalks, 
and store them away from frost and 
mice. 

In February another bulletin told 
the boys how to test the seed. From 


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PICTURED KNOWLEDGE »n 

You Always Can If You Try 


irrrrrrrrrfrffrrrrrrrrrrrrfrrfrffrniint^ 






512 





§...mm.....mini) THE CORN INDUSTRY miiiiimmiimimmiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiimmimiiimmiimiimmirnmiii^ 



Work of Illinois Boys 






This corn exhibit at the great World’s Fair in St. Louis showed what Illinois boys could do. In 
many cases you see the boys sent their photographs to be exhibited with the corn. 


ears at least ten inches long, with 
deep kernels set close in even rows, 
they must shell away the small grains 
at butts and tips. At home, and in 
district schools seeds were sprouted 
on wet sand and studied. Even city 
children can watch corn begin to 
grow. 

Next, five grains from each seed 
ear were planted in numbered 
squares in a sand box. If a seed 
ear was perfect five sturdy plants 
sprouted in its box. It used to be 
that when farmers wanted three 
stalks in a hill, they planted five 
seeds: 

“One for the blackbird, one for the 
crow, 

Three for the farmer to get out and 
hoe.” 

But it wasn’t the fault of the birds. 
Good seeds all come up. If half 


the seeds are bad there will be only 
a half crop. Good seeds are one- 
half the battle in raising corn. The 
other half is good land and careful 
tilling. 

Corn Teachers From Washington 

In April men teachers were sent 
out from Washington to help the 
boys select and prepare their acres. 
The rich creek bottoms, river valleys, 
and the level prairie lands of the 
South and Middle West are best for 
corn; but the same treatment will 
not do for all. Uncle Sam’s men 
knew all about plowing, draining, 
fertilizing, planting and cultivating 
corn. 

“When the corn is in, begin at 
once to cultivate with hoe-plows to 
keep the weeds down, the soil loose 
and a dust blanket on top, so no wa¬ 
ter can be drawn up by the sun, ex- 




V 

♦♦ 


5i3 










^iiiiiiiiii!ii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii>!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!!iii!iiiiii!iiiiiiii>iiiii!iiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiinlilil*^ 


A Southern Boys’ Corn Club 



Here is the Boys’ Corn Club of Hancock, Georgia, and their prize ears all neatly laid out in 
the baskets. You remember it was a Southern boy who beat the world’s record in raising com. 


cept through the plants. Plow every 
seven or ten days, and especially aft¬ 
er a rain hard enough to cake and 
crack the earth. 

“Plowing and hand hoeing killed 
most of the root worms and grubs. 
Plants with ‘smut/ a sooty, black 
fungus disease, were cut out, suckers 
pulled and small, weak tassels cut 
off.” 

Each boy kept accounts, for farm¬ 
ing is hard work and serious busi¬ 
ness. A good farmer must know 
just which crops make money. A 

Boys Beat b °y P aid h ' S father $5 
Their Fathers rent for his acre and $2 

Raising Corn a l oac [ f 0 r manure. His 

own time was valued at ten cents an 

hour, and a horse’s time at five cents. 

The boys grew from four to seven 

times as many bushels on their acres 

as their fathers grew in neighboring 

fields. 

That was the beginning. The 


next year the boys were set to study¬ 
ing their land, and told that corn 
growing and animal fattening go to¬ 
gether. After corn has been raised 
on a piece of land for four or five 
years it should be planted in clover 

‘Putting Legs and g rass and USed for 
on the pasture. In four or five 

Com Crofc years more the land is 

rich enough for corn again. Then 

the corn should not be sold but fed 

on the farm. A pound of corn is 

worth less than a cent, but a pound 

of fat animal, milk, butter, cheese or 

eggs is worth several cents. 

“When the Frost Is on the Pumpkin” 

Harvesting corn is very different 
from getting in wheat. In Septem¬ 
ber the good farmer selects his seed 
ears in the field. The corn is cut 
with sword-like knives or machines, 
and stacked, or “shocked” in tent 
shape to shed„rain. When pumpkins 




5H 












^niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu THE CORN INDUSTRY iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


A University Lecture on Corn 


This class of boys won prizes in a Wisconsin seed corn contest. The professor, as you see, is 
talking about oil in corn. Most of Jhe oil in corn is contained in the embryo—the spot in the 
center of the grain; so a large embryo means a large percentage of oil. The professor is pointing 
to a grain of this kind. The proteins that you read about in our article on the choice of foods are 
largely stored in the horn-like part of the grain at the top. Corn with a great deal of oil in it 
commands the best price from the glucose manufacturers who make corn oil as well as glucose, 
while corn with a small amount of oil and a great deal of protein is in special demand for feeding 
hogs for bacon. 


have been planted after the last 
plowing, the big, golden fruit lies 
among the stubble. As Riley says: 

“When the frost is on the pumpkin, 
And the fodder’s in the shock,” 

there are gay “husking bees” in the 
hazy days of Indian summer. Men 
tear down the shocks and strip off the 
ears. Even boys and girls work like 
beavers to fill the wagons that horses 
pull away to the corn cribs. At night 
there is a supper, with popcorn, 
cider, apples, pumpkin pie, and mer¬ 
ry games. 

Every part of the corn plant is 
used on the farm. The corn leaves, 
husks and stalks are cut for “fodder” 
and fed to animals in place of hay. 
The stubble is plowed under to en- 


Corn ’s 
Contribution 
to the Farm 


rich the land. Cattle and hogs are j 
fattened for the market. The farm | 
horses, milking cows and chickens | 
have their rations of | 
corn every day in the | 
year. If there is any to | 
spare, the farmer shells it and sends | 
it to market. | 

Many Things Made of Corn 

That—a part of it—goes to mills | 
to be made into meal, hominy, corn | 
flour and corn flakes for people to | 
eat. But ever so many other useful | 
things are made of corn—starch, al- . j 
cohol, corn oil, oil cake and corn | 
syrup. For these things there are | 
a hundred uses. | 

When Lincoln was a boy and meal | 
was wanted, he rode to mill with a | 
bag of shelled corn. The whole | 

♦♦ 


5*5 





















tCillllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllll!ll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllll PICTURED KNOWLEDGE IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHKIII^ 


grain was ground up into coarse, rich 
meal that made good bread just by 
adding salt and water. But that 
meal had to have the papery skin or 
“bran” sifted out, and it did not keep 
well. The gummy gluten in it and 
the oily germ, or baby plant, made 
it spoil like strong butter. 

In grinding corn today the bran 
is blown out and the germ and gluten 


and soak it in a pan of cold water. 
The potato floats, but starch washes 
out and falls to the bottom. If the 
water is poured away carefully the 
r o / starch soon dries to a 

Corn oyrup 

for Your soft powder. In Japan 
Hot Cakes starch is made from rice; 

in Europe from potatoes; in Amer¬ 
ica from corn. There are eight grades 
of it, from the fine white corn starch 


Father Goes to School Too! 



You see, progressive farmers as well as wide-awake boys are making a science of corn raising. 
This picture shows a class of farmers studying their business during a winter course for farmers 
at the University of Wisconsin. They are judging corn. 


| are sifted out. The germs are dried 
| and pressed for oil. This is as good 

I In Our f° r co °fci n g as cotton 

| Great’Modem seed and peanut oil, and 

| Com MiJ/s it takes the place of lin- 
| seed oil in mixing paints. What is 
| left, after pressing, is mixed with the 
| gluten and bran to make oil meal or 
I cakes for feeding dairy cows. The 
| rest of the grain, which is starch, 
| is cracked into hominy or ground 

| into meal. Corn oil and oil cake are 

| made in starch factories, too. 

Any child can make a little starch 
| at home. Peel a potato, chop it fine 

t*«lllllllllllllllllllll!llll!lllllllllllllllll!llllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllll!!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


used in puddings, cakes and toilet | 
powders, to laundry lumps, and the | 
coarse kinds for stiffening paper and | 
cloth in factories. A great deal of 1 
starch is now made into corn syrup, j 
Sweet, golden syrup out of taste- | 
less white starch! That sounds | 
funny, doesn’t it! But your stom- | 
ach is a regular little syrup factory. 1 
It takes all the white bread, potatoes, j§ 
rice and breakfast foods you eat and | 
mixes them with the water you drink 1 
and a little acid into a sugary pulp. 1 
Factory men learned how to do this | 
mixing outside the stomach. So corn I 







^'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE CORN 

| syrup is pre-di-gest-ed starch. The 
| starch is melted in water and acid, 
| bleached and purified with soda, then 
| boiled thick and clear, as are cane 
| and beet juices in making sugar. 

A great deal of corn is soaked and 
| fermented into alcohol. Whiskey 
| and other harmful liquors are made 
| of alcohol, but useful things are 


INDUSTRY 

to run alcohol engines to pump wa- | 
ter, run the corn cutter, churn and | 
washing machine. One bushel of | 
corn makes more than two gallons of | 
alcohol. | 

Farm Boys and Corn Crops of the Future | 

For the corn that is shipped to the | 
Old World, ground into meal and | 


Uncle Sam’s Big Corn Patch 



“We grow more than 2,500,000,000 bushels of com every year. That is four-fifths of all that is 
grown in the world. The eastern half of our United States is a big corn patch.” 


| made of it, too. It “cuts” or dis- 
| solves the stiffest gums, and takes up 
| flavors and perfumes. So it is the 
| base of perfumeries, fruit extracts 
| and many medicines. It is used to 

I Wide Use of thin fine enamel paints 
| Com Alcohol and varnishes and metal 
| m Industries lacquers; for making cel- 

| luloid, photograph papers and films 
| and dye stuffs, and for mixing 
1 smokeless powder. As a fuel for cer- 
| tain lamps, and motor engines it 
| takes the place of gasoline. If corn 
| was worth only twenty-five cents a 
| bushel it would pay farmers to have 
I little stills and make their own fuel 


table foods and turned into starch | 
and alcohol, it takes only one bushel | 
in every ten that is now grown. So, | 
if twice as much corn should be | 
raised that would mean that twice as § 
many farm animals could be fed. | 
And that would mean more and | 
cheaper animal food, richer farm | 
lands and more money for the farm- | 
ers. Uncle Sam says: j 

“When the boys of today grow up j 
they are going to stay on the farms | 
and double the corn crop.” 

The prize winners are using their j 
money to go to a-gri-cul-tur-al col- | 
leges. Those who can’t go to col- | 

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J5iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE BiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiraimniiraiiiiiiimiiiiiBraiiiiimnraniiniiimimmiiiig 


Two Fine Farm Crops 



Boys and corn are two of the finest crops raised on American rarms. , 


lege have learned that the govern¬ 
ment can help them. They have 

Those Wide l earne d to read farmers’ 
Awake Com papers, to show what 
Club Boys they have grown at fairs, 
to visit successful farms and govern¬ 
ment experiment stations, to know 
the value of good machines and ani¬ 
mals, and how to keep their lands in 
good condition. They will not for¬ 
get their corn club lessons. 

Look at our corn map. For many 
years the best corn states have been 
in the Middle West. But the dark 
area is stretching on all sides. Where 
the crops used to be thin, boys are 
now growing one hundred bushels on 
an acre. The Southern states had 
the poorest crops of all, because of 


bad farming. But the champion of 
50,000 boys, Jerry Moore, lived in 
South Carolina. He grew two hun¬ 
dred and twenty-eight bushels on 
one acre. That waked the South up 
—boys and men, bankers and rail¬ 
roads and merchants. They said : 

“In the South, where the growing 
season is long and rain plentiful, 
cattle can stay out on pastures all the 
year around. It should grow the 
biggest corn crops and supply the 
whole country with beef and pork 
and dairy products. You’ll see! 
We’ll change that corn map. Look 
out for your laurels, Middle West!” 

Our country should be proud of 
these boys who showed the way to 
wealth. Not every boy could do 


8 




518 







* 


THE CORN 

what Jerry did on his farm, nor 
could it always be done on a large 
scale. Jerry, among other things, 
brought rich mud from a creek bot¬ 
tom to build up his corn patch. But 
what Jerry did is a striking exam- 


INDUSTRY 

pie of the fact that time and thought 
judiciously invested will greatly in¬ 
crease the corn crop anywhere and 
show large returns—not only in 
money but in development of skill, 
judgment, brains and character. 


:S 


The Corn Harvest in Pioneer Days 



= From the Mural Painting by F. B. Millet in the Cleveland Trust Company Building 


The Corn Song 

Heap high the farmers wintry hoard! 

Heap high the golden corn! 

No richer gift has Autumn poured 
From out her lavish horn! 

Let other lands, exulting, glean 
The apple from the pine, 

The orange from its glossy green, 

The cluster from the vine; 

We better love the hardy gift 
Our rugged vales bestow, 

To cheer us when the storm shall drift 
Our harvest-fields with snow. 

Through vales of grass and meads of flowers 
Our plows their furrows made. 

While on the hills the sun and showers 
Of changeful April played. 

We dropped the seed o’er hill and plain 
Beneath the sun of May, 

And frightened from our sprouting grain 
The robber crows away. 

All through the long, bright days of June 
Its leaves grew green and fair, 

And zcaved in hot midsummer’s noon 
Its soft and yellow hair. 

And now, with autumn’s moonlit eves. 

Its harvest time has come, 

We pluck away the frosted leaves. 

And bear the treasure home. 


John G. Whittier 




♦« 


519 






iiiiiii[|iiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiN PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


This Is How the Boys Did It 



Arranging the Ears for Study 

The good farmer selects his seed ears in the field. But these ears must be carefully tested before 
the seed is planted. The first step in testing seed corn is to arrange the ears side by side on a 
table where they can be studied and compared. 


Picking Out the Weak and Poor 



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Next, the weaker and poorer ears are discarded. You see, they have already thrown out five. 
Among the things that indicate good yield are size, shape, solidity, weight of the ear, depth of 

kernel, size of germ, well-filled tip and butt. If an ear is not mature it will not ripen, and so, of 

course, cannot be used for seed. Lack of maturity is shown by too large an ear, too deep a 
kernel, chaffiness and light weight, looseness on cob, and dull, starchy appearance. Then you 
want to know if an ear will grow, so you ask—is the kernel clear, bright, smooth and horny, with 
a large germ, or heart? When the germ is dull and cheesy in appearance, or of a dark color, you 

throw that ear out. If the germ is white and brittle it is strong; but yet it must be tested to 

determine whether it will grow. Here is another point; an ear of corn may be excellent in every 
particular but not have a good “family history” back of it. 


520 















iiiiii[ii[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiii[iiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiini the corn industry ... 


The Next Three Steps 


Having selected good n 
ears in this way you M 
must now examine the §§ 
kernels. Take two or = 
three from each ear §1 
about one-third of the g 
length from the butt; n 
lay them germ side up = 
at the tip end of the M 
ear from which they M 
were taken. If the = 
kernels are small, §| 
wedge-shaped, narrow, s 
too shallow, too deep; M 
or show immaturity, §§ 
starchiness, tendency g 
to mold; or if the s 
germs are small, shriv- || 
eled up, blistered, weak j§ 
or frozen, the ear §; 
should be discarded. = 


Next lay out in rows 
and separate into divi¬ 
sions of ten ears each 
the ears selected. 
Write numbers on the 
table opposite each 
ten ears, as shown. 




This young man is ^ 
showing you how they = 
get rid of the excess §j 
water in the sawdust. g 
You notice he is also = 
using his feet, both to E 
hold the bag while he g 
twists it and to squeeze |§ 
out water. Too much = 
water in sawdust will g 
make it cold and soggy, = 
which will keep the n 
seeds from germinating n 
just as will ground = 
that is too wet. 




521 
















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Preparing the Germination Box 



In the next two pictures the germination box is being got ready. It is filled about half full of 
warm, well-soaked sawdust and packed down level and firm with a brick so as to leave the surface 
even and smooth. 

A cloth is now put in the box. The boys are tacking it in carefully around the edges. Notice 
that there is a margin of 2^4 inches around the edge of this cloth—it is called the “germination 
cloth”—and that there are little squares on it. These squares are 2 I / 2 x2 1 /2 inches. The box is 
large enough to test 100 ears of corn. The box itself is 30x30 inches and 4 inches deep. 


Kernels for the Germination Box 



Remove six kernels from six different places in ear Number 1 and place them in square Number 1 
of the germination box. Do the same with all the other ears until the box is filled. In removing 
kernels take two from near the butt on opposite sides of the ear, two from the middle and two 
from the tip, turning the ear enough so as not to take two kernels out of the same row. Now you 
see why the ears are numbered. You leave them just where they are until the seed test is over. 
The seeds in each of these little squares are numbered to correspond with the number of the ear in 
the row. If the test turns out well for the seeds of a given ear you take the rest of the good-< 
looking seeds from that ear for seed. If they do not turn out well you use the ear for feed but 
not for seed. 



522 







































uuiiiiiiinm iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii THE CORN INDUSTRY iiiniiiiiBuunuiiiiiMwtiuiiiiiiiiiuiinimiiniimiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiffliiifflD^ 


Packing the Saw¬ 
dust and Putting 
on the Cover 
Cloth 


Now lay on the cover 
cloth, first dipping it 
in warm water and 
wringing it out. This 
cloth helps to keep the 
kernels in place. 


“Teaching the Corn Geography’' 


Now cover the seeds 
and fill the box with 
warm sawdust, tramp¬ 
ing it down, or pack¬ 
ing it with a brick. It 
is better to use a brick 
because you can cover 
the seeds more uni¬ 
formly. You know you 
want to make it a fair 
race and say '‘may the 
best seed win.” 


It is a curious thing 
about these seeds that 
they seem to have to 
be taught the “geogra¬ 
phy” of their box. By 
raising one edge of it, 
as shown—the edge to¬ 
ward which the crowns 
of the kernels are 
pointed—they seem to 
learn that that part of 
the box is “up,” just 
as the top of a map is 
north. So, when grow¬ 
ing, they send their 
stems toward the up¬ 
per part of the box and 
their roots down. 

It will take a grain 
of corn seven to eight 
days to germinate. 
Keep the box where it 
cannot freeze—in an 
ordinary living room or 
cellar. 




















.. Hill .. PICTURED KNOWLEDGE hihihiiihihihhiihhhhiiihihhihihhhihihiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii£ 


The Reading of the Test 



Removing the Cover Cloths 

Next you take off first the top cloth, then the cover cloth, as the boy is doing in this picture. 



Reading the Test 


Now comes the most interesting part of all—the reading of your test. Notice that the father is 
looking at the corn in the box while the boy is picking out an ear whose seeds have turned out well. 



524 























^iiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih THE CORN INDUSTRY iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiii:iilllllllllllliili!iiiiiiiiililiiliiiiiii^ 

| Here is Where You ‘Tell the Fortune" of the Seed Corn 


Now, here we are looking right down into the 
germination box. Before you read the answer, 
see which grains you would pick out as the poor¬ 
est, which next poorest, and so on up to the best. 

You notice one of them did not grow at all. I 
wonder if they have that foolish old superstition 
about the “unlucky” number in Corn Land. Of 
course, the ear from which Number 13 was taken, 
as well as ears Numbers 2 , 11 and 24 should go to 
the feed bin at once. Ears 21 and 23 should be 
used only in case of shortage. Ears 1 , 3, 4, 12, 14 
and 22 are strong. Tests show that there is often 
fifteen to twenty bushels less yield from weak 
seeds than from strong. 


5 2 5 









^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiliii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE . 1 . 1111111 . iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i i i iii i111 i i1 i iiiii i iiiiiii i§ 


What the Rag Babies Say 



This picture illustrates what is called “The Rag Baby Test” for seed corn. It is quite similar to 
the test we have been explaining. The test grains are wrapped in moistened rags and there left 
to sprout. After the sprouting they are distributed in little squares corresponding to the numbered 
ears, as you see. 


Does it Pay? This is the Answer 



Does it pay to test seed corn? Here is the answer. It took just as many grains of seed to raise 
the corn in the box on the left as in the box on the right. You can hardly believe it, can you? 
But remember what Terry Moore did—and the other corn club boys. 

The first thing, as well as the most important thing, in raising corn is the careful selection of 
the seed. This may sound very simple. We are inclined to say: “Why, you just pick out good 
looking grains,” but in order to do this, you see there are about 20 different things you have to 
look out for. 

After the seed has been sorted, tested and shelled and the bad kernels removed, it should be 
sacked up, one-half bushel in each sack, and hung in a dry place where it will not freeze—say, in 
a basement with a furnace or up in the attic. In one sack put the best hundred ears. The careful 
farmer plants the best seed on one side of the field, and from this picks his seed corn for the next 
year’s planting. 












To Fill That SweetTooth 


In the artist’s heading of this story of sugar you see the little boy and 
girl pulling taffy. The ground between them is covered with sugar beets. 
You can easily find the cane field, the big sugar factory and nature’s sugar 
factory, the maple grove and the sweet sap dripping into the buckets. 



I T IS easier to empty a sugar 
bowl than it is to fill it. 

Oh no, you think. Mama just 
goes to the sugar box. But if that 
is empty, Johnny or Mary Alice 
runs to the grocery. The store¬ 
keeper telephones a wholesale 
grocery to hurry up those barrels 
of sugar that were ordered. The 
wholesale dealer says the car 
loads of sugar he ordered haven’t 
come from the refinery. The re¬ 
finery is waiting for ship loads of 


“raw” 


from— 


sugar to come 
where do you suppose? 

It’s like the mouse’s tail that 
was bitten off by the cat. The cat 

The Sugar WSS t° give it 

Bowl and the back if the milkmaid 
Mouse's would give her some 

Lost J. CLtl 'ii HTM * 1 

milk. 1 he maid went 
to the cow. The cow wanted hay, 
and the farmer wanted rain. A 
whole string of people and things 
were put to work, so the mouse 
could have her tail again. 






■at. 

w 

w 



5 2 7 







































































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin j|||| tJ 

In the Happy Land of Sugar Cane Many colored children and a few j 

The story of our empty sugar white ones live on plantations in our | 

| bowl leads us back to sunshine and country’s big, black sugar bowl. j 

| clouds, men plowing, green things They have the happiest times! 




The Worlds Sugar Bowl 



This map shows the cane and sugar producing regions of the world 


growing, and mills grinding and Where the Sugar Cane Buries its Toes 

cooking. You didn’t know sugar It is ’way down in Louisiana, 
was cooked? Why, any pickaninny around the mouth of the Mississippi 
—that’s a cunning 
colored child down 
South—could tell 
you that. Picka¬ 
ninnies eat raw 
candy. They tod¬ 
dle out to the fields 
where their good- 
natured black 
papas are cutting 
sugar canes. Sugar 
canes look like big 
corn stalks. They 
are juicy as water 
melons and much 
sweeter. 



© Keystone View Co. 

The Pickaninnies’ Candy Shop 


river. It is so warm 
there that the chil¬ 
dren go barefooted. 
They love to 
“sqush” the soft, 
cool black earth be¬ 
tween their wiggly 
toes. Sugar cane 
likes that rich, 
drained swamp 
land, too. Men plow 
the land in fur¬ 
rows, as for corn. 
But they don’t 
plant seed, although 
sugar cane has 



♦<* 


528 





















TO FILL THAT SWEET TOOTH 


M 


| seed. You know potatoes are not 
| usually grown from seed. The po- 
| tatoes have “eyes” from which new 
| plants sprout. So sugar canes have 
| “eyes” at the bamboo-like joints. 
| Canes are laid in the furrows and 
| covered. Roots grow from the 
| joints, and tufts of grass-like leaves 
| come up through the soil. A field 
| of young sugar cane looks like a 
| corn field. But the plants grow fast- 
| er and higher. They grow like 
| Jack’s bean stalk—twelve or fifteen 
| feet from April to October. 

What a Sugar Plantation Looks Like 

It does not pay to grow sugar on 
| small farms. One big plantation 
| follows another, covering miles of 


warm, moist country. It is a beau- | 
tiful, flat, green country. But, like | 

A Billowy ^ ie town that could not | 
Ocean of be seen for the houses, | 
Green you would have to get | 

above the cane fields really to see | 
them. From a flying machine you | 
could see, below you, a billowy ocean j 
of bright green canes, blowing in j 
the wind which comes from the Gulf | 
of Mexico. Here and there a white- | 
pillared plantation house would | 
show like a white-cap on tumbling | 
waves. The villages of negro cab- | 
ins might be fleets of bark canoes, | 
with their roofs of cypress bark. | 
The tall brick chimneys of the sugar j 
mills are plumed like the smoke | 
stacks of ocean steamers. Through | 
the two hundred miles long, emer- j 
aid sea, the broad, brown flood of | 


The Southern Cousin of the Corn 

See how thick and tall the sugar cane grows. 
A cane field is a perfect jungle of shiny, green 
leaves that whisper and. moan in the wind. On 
hot, still summer days they sing you a lullaby 
with their drowsy murmur, but when a storm is 
coming, they make a loud “swish, swish!” 


© Underwood. & Underwood, N. Y. 

Harvesting Cane in Cuba 

Cane-growers cut and load their crop on racks 
just as northern farmers do their hay. See the 
smoke stack and buildings of the cane mill in the/ 
background. 


* 


5 2 9 








^il!llllllllllll!llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!!!l!lll!lllll!llllllllllll!l!lll PICTURED KNOWLEDGE llllllllllllllllll!lllllll!llllllllllill*llllllllll | lllll | l^ 


the Mississippi River heaves and 
bends, and divides into many out¬ 
lets. The sugar land is thus cut up 
into big islands. 

Each plantation has a river wharf. 
Boats tie up to 
these wharves 
and load with 
barrels of su¬ 
gar. The river 
steamers carry 
the sugar to 
New Orleans. 

That city is the 
market for su¬ 
gar and cotton. 

Over the larg¬ 
er plantations 
you can ride on 
private rail¬ 
roads. It is 
cheaper to car¬ 
ry the cane to 
the mill in cars 
drawn by a lit¬ 
tle engine, than to keep enough 
horses and drivers to do the work. 
The track runs between high walls 
of slashing sabers and fluttering 
banners of green, topped with plumy 

These two little people 
have started a sugar mill 
of their own with mama’s 



tassels. Overhead flocks of little 
yellow sugar birds flit, and feed on 
A 'Railroad the seedy tassels. A long 
of Its Own line of negro men and 
women marches-across a field. Each 

has a broad 
curved knife.' 
One blow sev- 
ers a thick 
cane. Slash— 
slash — slash ! 
The canes are 
stripped and 
topped, and 
dropped in 
piles. 

A Ride to the 
Sugar Mill 

Choo —choo 
—choo! The 
chuggy loco¬ 
motive p u ff s 
busily along 
the field. The 
open, cart-like cars are filled with 
cane. You are riding to the mill. 
Such a clatter of machinery inside! 

A broad, moving belt carries the 
cane to the top of the mill. You 
know wheat is carried to the top of 
the flour-mill. Many things made 
rvr • - in factories are elevated 

Wringing 

Out the by belts, or little buckets 

Sugar Juice 0 n p n p belts. This saves 

a lot of work. The canes in the mill 
fall step by step. Every time they 
drop something happens. At the 
bottom of a mill flour flows into 
bags, sugar into barrels. The sugar 
canes are caught between file¬ 
toothed wheels that crush them. 
Iron cylinder wringers squeeze the 
juice out. The canes are squeezed 
as flat as paste board and as dry as 
kindling. 


The Machine that “Chews” the Cane 



Here the cane is crushed and then passes on to the 
rollers, which squeeze out the juice. See what a com¬ 
plicated system of wheels is needed to perform on a 
large scale one-half the operation which the small 
boy enjoys so much—“chewing cane.” 


aim...........mmmmmmmimmmmmmmmmmmimmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmimmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiia 


530 
























TO FILL THAT SWEET TOOTH nminniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiniiiimiimNniiiiiimiNiiinimiiss 




Back Linder the Boilers 

The canes are carried along - and 
dropped into the furnace under the 

How the b 0 i lers - 
Cane Helfrs The 
the Cook b 0 j J erg 

make steam to 
turn the mill 
wheels. The mill 
catches and 
squeezes more 
canes. The ashes 
from the furnace 
are spread on the 
fields to fertilize 
them. It works in 
an endless circle. 

Nothing is 
wasted. 

The juice from 

Such Look- t h e 
ing Sugar CaneS is 

Wa,er caught 
in troughs. It has 
a dirty, greenish- 
gray color, and 

, ... © International Film Service 

has a Sickening Burning limestone to 

beet juice. 


sweet smell and taste. You never 
would believe it could be made into 
s p a r k 1 i n g white sugar! It is 

“cleared” and 
“settled” with 
milk of lime, as 
* mama settles cof¬ 
fee with the white 
of an egg. The 
lime also neutral¬ 
izes, or kills, an 
acid that is in the 
juice. Sulphur 
gas forced 
through the juice 
whitens it. Milli¬ 
ners bleach yel¬ 
lowed straw hats 
with sulphur 
fumes. A dark, 
frothy scum rises 
to the top, just as 
it does when 
mama boils jelly. 
This is skimmed 
off. The clear, 

(£) Keystone View Co. 

be used in purifying SWeet SUgar water 


© Brown Bros. N. Y. 

Here is the dirty, “raw” sugar just as it comes from the plantation cane-mills. The men are pour¬ 
ing it through the openings into an elevator that will start it on its long journey through the re¬ 
finery, from which it comes out shiny, white and clean. 




*« 


it*: 


53i 



















PICTURED 

flows away into big copper kettles 
that hold barrels. 


Why the Sugar Kettles Wear Jackets 

It wouldn’t do to build a fire 
| under those kettles. Sugar burns 
| easily. The vats are heated to boil- 
| ing in jackets of steam coils. The 
| sugar loses its water in vapor, and 
I The Sugar boils to a clear, thick, 
| and the Syrufi golden syrup. For syrup 
| making, the boiling is stopped at 
| that stage. For sugar it is boiled 
| until the syrup is 
| thick with crys- 
| tals, or grains. It 
| looks like white 
| mush mixed with 
I syrup. The su- 
| gar crystals are 
| separated from 


KNOWLEDGE 

the liquid much as clothes are dryed 
in big steam laundries. 

Whirl a soaked sponge by a string. 
The water flies off, in every direc¬ 
tion. You could whirl the sponge 
dry. Wet clothes are put into a 
c I- cylinder of holes and 

ocrapmg the J 

Tig Sugar whirled, to force the 

water out. The sugar 
liquid is put into a big drum, with 
walls of the finest wire gauze. A 
whirling shaft forces the syrup 
through. Snow-white, but damp, 

the sugar clings to 
the gauze walls. 
It is scraped off 
and dried in a 
steam - heated 
drum. The 
drum is re- 
v o 1 v e d to 


What Big Sugar Lumps! 



© Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 

These are plates of sugar, fourteen inches long, ten inches wide and an inch thick, which have 
just been taken from the molds shown on the opposite page. They will be kept moving on this 
conveyor through a “stove”-room for twenty hours until they are thoroughly dry. Then each plate 
will be cut into the “lumps” we use in our coffee. 


♦,« 

*♦ 


♦ ♦ 


532 










TO PILL THAT SWEET TOOTH 


The purified sugar-liquid or 
syrup is boiled until it has 
begun to crystallize. The man 
who has charge of this boiling 
knows just when the crystals 
are of the right size for the fine, 
sparkling loaf sugar you like to 
eat almost as well as candy. 
Here it is being poured into a 
big tank just after it has left 
the boiling pan. 

That spout through which it 
pours is let down by the chain 
you see attached to it. It’s like 
the big spout they let down from 
the railroad water tank when 
they fill the tank of the locomo¬ 
tive. The rubber tube at the 
side is for washing out the tank 
from time to time, just as you 
wash out the pan after you are 
through boiling the syrup in 
making taffy. On the left you 
see the paddle which keeps the 
sugar from solidifying in the 
tank. 

Those iron cylinders are called 
“wagons.” They contain molds 
into which the hot half-crystal¬ 
lized sugar is poured. Here it 
stays for forty or fifty hours. 
When it is cold and hard big 
cranes lift the molds from the 
wagons by means of the iron 
rings which you see on the top 
of each mold. 


© Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


= © Underwood <£ Underwood, N. L. 


keep the sugar from 
lumping. As spark¬ 
ling white, granulat¬ 
ed sugar, fine and 
dry as sand, it flows 
through spouts into 
barrels. 

Cut-loaf sugar 
isn’t cut. The gran- 
u 1 a t e d sugar is 
pressed, while damp, 
into rows of oblong 
molds, on a cylinder 
machine. The fl a t, 
sugar dominoes are 
just the right size 
for using in coffee 
and tea. They are 
the purest cheap 
candy for children. 

A great deal of 
“r a w,” or dark 
brown, dirty sugar 
is shipped to us from 




♦V 


533 














♦♦♦ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦,* 

♦♦ 


Gets Its 
Face VFashed 


I Cuba, the Philippine Islands and 
| other countries. So, in San Fran- 
I Sugar That cisco > Philadelphia and 

other sea-port cities, 
there are sugar refiner- 
| ies. The raw sugar is dumped 
| from bags into elevators and sent 
| to the top of 
| the refinery. It 
| is mixed with 
| water, melted, 

| filtered 
| through bone 
| charcoal to 
| take out the 
| dirt, bleached 
| and boiled 
| and finished. 

But per- 
| haps it isn’t 
| cane sugar in 
| your bowl. It 
| may be beet 
| sugar. There 
| isn’t nearly 
| enough of the 
| warm, moist 
| land with rich 
| soil, to grow all the sugar cane the 
| world wants. In the Hawaiian Is¬ 
lands, where the weath¬ 
er and soil are just right, 
the fields are irrigated, 
watered from mountain 
The work then is done by 
| Japanese and Chinese coolies, who 
| learned in their own countries, to 
| irrigate rice fields. Nearly all the 
| work in sugar cane fields is done by 
| black, brown and yellow people, who 
| are used to the climate. White men 
| cannot work well in such warm, 
| damp countries. 

The Sugar Made from Beets 

A hundred years ago men began 
| to think about trying to make sugar 
| from other plants that would grow 



© Keystone View Company 

Testing the Processes in the Laboratory 


The Hawai¬ 
ian Island 
Fields 

that is, 
streams. 


in our cooler northern country. The 
bees told us long ago that there is 
honey in flowers. Sweet corn and 
peas and sweet potatoes have sugar 
in them. But the beet roots have 
more. And more of them can be 
grown on an acre of land. They 

grow in every 
kitchen gar- 
cl e n in ou r 
northern 
states, and in 
Europe. More 
than half our 
sugar is now 
made from 
the beet root. 

The seeds 
are planted in 
rows like po¬ 
tatoes. When 
full grown 
they are from 
fifteen to 
twenty inches 
long and six 
across. They 
weigh a pound 
to a pound and a half. Several tons 
can be grown on one acre. The 
flesh is not the blood red 
of our little turnip¬ 
shaped garden beet, but 
is a light red. They look more like 
pink parsnips than beets. 

In the Beet Sugar Refinery 

When dug, in September, the 
roots are topped, and then scrubbed 
in washing machines. At the re¬ 
finery the roots are cut into long 
pencil - like strips and 
covered with warm 
water. They move about 
from one vat to another. The sugar 
is not squeezed out, but soaked out, 
as a cook soaks the salt from codfish. 
The water turns the same muddy 


In the 
Sugar Beet 
Fields 


This Sugar 
Water Is 
Soaked Out 


V 

• « 


9 

*♦ 


534 







. .. TO PILL THAT SWEET TOOTH iiiiillilliiiiiiiiiiiilliililiw 



^c; Underwood & Underwood 



(£) Underwood it Underwood 


♦> 

♦> 



(c) Underwood <6 Underwood 


Three Steps in the Making n 
of Beet Sugar 

The cylindrical vessels in the 1 
upper left hand corner are j| 
called diffusion batteries and are M 
connected with each other in M 
series. After being thoroughly M 
washed and sliced by machinery M 
the sugar beets are heated in jjj 
one of these cylinders or cells. M 
Then the sugary liquor from the M 
next cell is allowed to run in. §| 
The cell thus filled is the head 1 
of the battery. The preceding M 
cell, whose liquor has just been 1 
drained, is emptied of its spent §j 
slices and filled again with fresh M 
ones, thus displacing cell num- 1 
ber one as head of the battery, § 
And so the process goes on E 
through the whole battery of M 
twelve or fourteen cells in turn 1 
until the juice is ready for the E 
saturators, where it is purified E 
and filtered. § 

To the right are the great | 
boilers for concentrating and § 
crystallizing the sugar after it § 
has been purified. Below is a If 
centrifugal machine which sep- 1 
arates the crystallized sugar from 1 
the syrup. It contains a large I 
porous cylinder which is re- p 
volved rapidly. Just as water i 
flies off the grindstone when it 
is spun around very fast, so the 1 
liquid syrup flies outward = 
through the holes in the cylinder M 
leaving the heavier sugar behind. E 


Itt 


535 


















^lllllll!iilliliillllll!llllllil!ll!ll!lllll!l!IJIIIIII!llll!ll!l!llliillllllilliill!!lll! PICTURED 

| black as that in which beets are 
| boiled for dinner. But that water is 
| as sweet as cane juice. It is purified 
| with lime and carbonic acid and 
| bleached until it is as clear as well 
| water. Then it is boiled to a syrup 
| and finished to granulated sugar. 
| People used to think that beet sugar 
| could not be as good as cane sugar. 
| It is exactly like it. Both plants 


KNOWLEDGE iuiiiiiiuuiiii*^ 

them with wooden spouts. I he sap j 
runs into buckets hung on the j 
spouts. The boys are kept busy | 
emptying buckets into a cask mount- j 
ed on a sled. A horse pulls the sled | 
to the house, or to a sugar camp in g 
the woods. 

Maple sugar water is so fine -and | 
clean that it is just boiled in big iron | 
kettles, or long pans over an out- j 


Playing at Pulling Candy 



Did you ever watch the taffy man pulling his shiny, white candy over and over a hook? Let’s 
pretend we’re taffy men. Put your left foot forward and throw the candy forward and upward to 
the count, “One,” being sure to make it catch on the hook. Then pull back hard with both hands 
on “Two.” We must pull with all the muscle we have because the taffy is almost done and is 
very stiff. 


| have in them the same kind of sugar. 
| The sugar in raisins, dates, figs and 
| other fruits is called grape sugar. 

At the Maple Sugar Pump 

Maple sugar is made on farms in 
| a few Northern states, in the early 
| spring. The snow is still on the 
1 ground when the sap begins to climb, 
i r> to feed the maple blos- 

| a Sugar soms that come before 

| Cam ft the leaves. For two or 

| three weeks there is a busy, exciting 
| time in a maple grove. The farm- 
| ers bore holes in the trees and plug 


door fire box. The syrup is skimmed I 
and put into bottles or cans. For | 
Sugar that sugar it is boiled longer § 


Tastes of 
the VCoods 


and poured into molds. § 
It is our wild Indian su- j 
gar, with the spicy smell and taste j 
of the forest in the spring. On the | 
last night of sugar making, there is | 
A VTaftle a frolic in the camp. The | 
Sugar Cam ft boys and girls make | 
maple wax. The hot candy is poured j 
by the spoonful, into snow banks, to 1 
harden. | 

Oh dear! Don’t you wish you | 
were there? I 


a 


a 


536 













You see 
W^Aat these 
Pictures Tell 


rPHE pictures on this page show 
many things made of leather 
and growing out of the leather 
industry in which 
boys and girls are in¬ 
terested. You see the 
catcher’s mit, 
the tennis rack¬ 
et, the baseball, 
the leather belt 


for running machinery, the strap 
for carrying school books and the 
head and braces of the drum. 
Then there are what are called 
“by-products” of the great pack¬ 
ing industry which furnishes such 



a large proportion of the hides to 
the tanner. These by-products 
include soap, combs, buttons, gly¬ 
cerine, the horn handles of knives, 
the strings of musical instruments. 
Then, because the packer sells his 
soap and glycerine to the drug¬ 
gist, he also “jobs”—that is, buys 
of the manufacturer and resells 
as part of his own line—talcum 
powder and other things. Back 
of the big moose who furnished 
the Indian with <A 

the leather for his r \ 

moccasins, the 
artist shows the C r~—v) 
hemlock SoAP 





trees from 
which bark comes that is used for 
tanning. The horn handle on the 
knife blade is also one of the by¬ 
products of the packing industry 
and so is the glue used in binding 
the books. 

So you see how much of our 
story of the great leather industry 
the artist has already told in these 
little pictures. And don’t the clear, 








537 




























































































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'IIIIIIIIIIIIHII 11111111111 ^ 


simple outlines just make you want 
to draw them? 

The very proudest thing a little 
boy or girl can have is a pair of 

Your Good new shoes—the shiny, 
Little Two squeaky kind that no one 
S hoes can possibly fail to no¬ 

tice and admire. 

“Just see how bright I am, and 


question mark on two feet is sure to ^ 
ask, so papa might just as well put j 
Questions his paper down and be- | 

for Tafia gin to answer questions. § 

“Shoes grow on the back of ani- | 
mals with four legs—on hooky- j 
horny cows, bawly calves, gallopy j 
horses, butty goats and jumpy kan- j 
garoos. Leather is made of the j 



s Just think of having this leather menagerie in your house! That queer looking thing which is || 

%. sticking above and below the picture—do you know what that is? That’s one of those “smelly” hides |j 

^ that tells your nose when it’s near a tannery. 

And the alligator? Oh, he was bashful and tried to get out of the picture. But you see the artist M 

= caught him anyhow! 1! 


how much bigger than the last 
pair!” they seem to say. 

Sometimes papa thinks children 
should be born with shoes on, as 
puppies and colts are. New shoes 
do grow old so fast! Every month 
or so he is surprised. 

“What! Worn out already! Do 
you think shoes grow on bushes?” 

“What do they grow on?” a little 


skins of hairy animals.” 

Why, you may have a leather zoo 

The Zoo hi y° ur house! See how 
in many kinds of animal 

Your House s ki ns y 0 u can find. It’s 

as much fun as playing “Button, 
button, who’s got the button?” 
There are kid or baby goat, dog¬ 
skin and buck-skin gloves. Very 
likely papa has a pig-skin bill-book, 


£lllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllillllllll!lllllllllllllllll!llllllll!^ 


533 




















;♦> 

'iJr 


the leather industry 

How Mother Made My Moccasins 


♦ 4 



and a seal or walrus pocketbook and 
belt. Sister is proud of her pretty 
alligator shopping bag. You have 
Many books bound in half- 

Kinds calf, morocco and 

of Leather Russia leather. Span¬ 

ish bull-hide is used for covering 
easy chairs and couches. And 
brother’s college diploma is printed, 
not on paper, but on vellum, which is 
sheepskin. Maybe he has a scaly 
belt of snakeskin, a rhinoceros whip 
and porpoise leather shoe strings. 

As you look at the picture of 
the mother making moccasins 
for the little girl, play you are 
really there looking on and that 
the little girl is telling you 
about it. This is how she 
might talk to you: 

“When mother makes moc¬ 
casins for us children we put '/< | 
our bare feet on a piece of 
tanned deer hide that has been 
wetted. She 
shapes and 
ties the skin 
around each 
foot. Then 
we hold our 
feet before 


the fireplace until the moc¬ 
casins dry into shape. After 
that she gathers the top 
with deer sinews, rubs the skin 
nice and soft and we’ve got a 
brand new pair of shoes. 
When mother is shaping the 
leather around my foot it 

tickles; and then I laugh and 
she laughs!” 

So many things have to be 
7- „ • done to animal 

1 anning 

Among the skins to change 

Indians them into leather. 

A skin is in two layers. The 
outer, hairy layer is a horny 
scarf skin. The Indians 
learned to soak their skins in lime- 
water and to scrape away the hairy 
layer with sharp-edged shells. 

As the little pioneer girl helped 
her mama in making her new shoes 
—by holding as still as she could, 
even when it tickled—her big broth¬ 
er helped to make shoes and buck¬ 
skin clothes by preparing the skin. 
Here we see him currying the hide 
—that is, scraping off the hair with 
a knife—after his mother had 
soaked the hide in water in which 


The Boy Tanner of 
Pioneer Days 



♦ ♦ 




539 



















^iiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiit PICTURED KNOWLEDGE |||| i ||| lilli || iii || i ||||| i || ll ||| iiii | i | w^ 



This map shows the regions of the world where sheep and cattle are raised. In western Europe 
and the eastern part of our own country we find a few sheep or cattle on each farm, but not many 
large herds, because the country is too thickly settled for pasture space. But in the heavily checked 
regions—in Australia, our own western plains, the southern tip of Africa and part of South Amer¬ 
ica—there are great herds of both sheep and cattle. There are several reasons why they are there. 
Do you know what these reasons are? 


she had put wood ashes. The wa¬ 
ter was in the long vat which father 
and the boys cut out of a log just 
as you dig out a canoe. 

The inner skin is a soft, wet, rub¬ 
bery mantle. It has blood and 
nerves and gelatin in it so it spoils 
as quickly as fresh meat. If not 
dried at once it must be salted to 
stop decay. When stretched and 
dried it is stiff and brittle. The In¬ 
dians rubbed and pulled the skins, 
worked tallow into them to soften 
them and scraped them smooth. 


Their deerskin shirts and moccasins 
were as soft as broadcloth, and as 
pretty a yellow as chamois skins. 
But water soaked into them. You 
can melt chamois or buckskin to a 
gluey mass in boiling water. 

You could not melt an old shoe. 
The leather in it has been tanned. 
Taste some tea that has stood on 

‘Puckering tlie l eaves until cold. It 

the Skin's is puckery. Oak galls, 

Mouths some acorns, sumach 

leaves, and oak, hemlock, willow and 
birch barks have that puckery taste, 




540 
































ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM^ THE LEATHER INDUSTRY llliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


These are oak apples—little bunches that grow on oak trees when the gall wasp lays her eggs in 
them. They are one source of the tannin used in tanning leather. 


too. These plants have tannin in 
them. The tannin puckers the gela¬ 
tin-like fibres of animal skins, and 
hardens them. 


= When. There 


Was a Tannery 
Town 


in 


Every 


When our country was new every 
little town had a tan yard and the 
American pioneers tanned their own 


leather. After taking the hair from | 
skins with lime water and dull- | 
edged draw knives, the tanner put j 
the skins into a big vat. Between | 
them he put powdered oak or hem- | 
lock bark. Then he filled the vat | 
with water. The skins soaked for | 
mbnths. 

Leather is made in the same way | 
today, but much more quickly. The | 


Soles Enough for Many “Hikes” 


Here are endless piles of roughly shaped soles ready to be trimmed and sewed on to hundreds of 
pairs of shoes. 




♦,* 

♦♦ 


54 1 













... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE uiiiuiiiiimuiiiiiiiiMiiiiirauraiiiiiimiiiiiiimuiUBiiiiiinjmiiiiiiiiing 


How Bossy’s Skin is Changed to Leather 



© Keystone View Co. © Keystone View Co. 

Making the Hair “Fall Out” 

On the left you see the stiff, hairy hides as they come to the tannery from the slaughter house. 
At the right they are being run on wheelbarrows into the “sweating” vaults, where the hair is 
loosened from them. 


tanneries are in big brick buildings, 
near cities where there are packing 
houses, or near the seaports in New 
England. What kind of hides come 


from the stock yards? And where 
do we get kid and morocco, goat 
skins, seal, walrus and alligator— 
the fine “fancy” leathers? 



© Keystone T icio Co. © Keystone View Co. 

This picture shows the machine which begins the removal of the hair. It has a series of revolving 
knives which clip most of the hair off. At the right you see the final stage in removing the hair 
from the hides. It is called “beaming.” As you see. the scraping is done with a sharp knife on a = 
sloping board, called a “beam.” = 











^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH THE LEATHER INDUSTRY iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 

| Tanning and Oiling the Hides 


After the hair is removed, the hides are put in great tanning vats and thoroughly soaked with 
tannin. At the left, a workman is taking a hide out of a vat in the floor. Then the hides are oiled 
with a thick, gummy oil which you see in the barrel in the foreground of the next picture. 


© Keystone View Co. 


© Keystone View Co. 



The workman in this picture is putting the same hides into an oiling drum, containing hot fat. 
In the old-fashioned method of tanning, the hides were laid away in grease for a month This is 
one of the devices which shortens the process. Next you see the oiled hides hung on racks to dry. 



543 
















....iiiii.. PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .... 


= © Keystone View Co. 

Next the hide is ironed smooth by machinery just as a stiffly starched white apron is ironed. 
The iron, you see, is a roller operated by machinery. 


Putting on the Finishing Touches 


♦>i 



© Keystone View Co. 


In this picture the man is blacking the leather. It is finished now. ready to be made into harness, 
shoes, traveling bags or saddles—depending on what kind of leather it is and how it ,has been 
prepared. 









THE LEATHER INDUSTRY 

A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 


♦.* 


Cutting 

“Leather 

Cookies” 


m 




made thick or thin, soft as satin and | 
as thick and stiff as boards for shoe j 
soles. Goat and seal are given a | 
pebbled surface. Walrus is ribbed. | 
An alligator hide is left the natural | 
blocked markings of the skin. A | 

How Different bright or velvet finish is § 
Hides are given to kid. Calf skin i 

Treated is usually finished | 

smooth and dull, a “gun-metal” po- | 
lish; but for making patent leather, | 
calf skin is varnished, rubbed down | 
and baked, just like a japanned tea | 
tray. Most shoe leathers are | 
dyed black or brown. But | 
there are white buckskin | 
shoes. And kid is finished j 
snow white, or is tinted in | 
the delicate colors of silk | 
for party slippers. 

Where Your Shoes Are Made 1 


Hides come to tanneries wet- 
salted, dry-salted and sun-dried. 
They smell very bad. They are 
hurried into a brine bath, then 
tt -vr into a lime water bath. 

Your J\.ose ' t 

Will Know Knives on a whirling 
a Tannery cylinder scrape away 

the hair. The skins are then put 
into strong tan water. The tannin 
is forced in by pressure, so the 
skins are tanned in a few weeks or 
days. 

The tanned skins are dried, 
stretched, rubbed, oiled, pressed 
and hammered solid. The surface 
is sandpapered smooth, and then 
dyed, oiled and polished. Some¬ 
times skins are split. Leather is 


This picture shows a machine that also does this 
work. Notice the cutters of different patterns at the 
right of the picture. The man doing the cutting 
chooses the pattern that will fit into his piece of 
leather with the least waste. It requires a skilled 
workman to do this. 


From forty thousand tan- | 
neries in our country all | 
kinds of leather go to mar- | 
ket to New York, Boston, | 

Mechanical “Cooky Cutter” 


The picture shows a boy with his razor-edged 
die that is like a cooky cutter. He is cutting 
up the small pieces of leather that would other¬ 
wise be wasted. In the shoe factory the boys who 
are just learning the trade do this. The pieces 
are used for backstays, tongues, and other small » 
parts of the shoe. ^ 


545 










j^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinr pictured knowledge iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiin^ 


A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 



This is the crimping machine. The big white 
plate comes down upon the piece of leather which 
the man is holding in his right hand, and forces it 
into a slot only slightly larger than the plate. This 
“crimps” or shapes the leather. 



This illustration shows a machine sewing backstays 
on shoes. It works very rapidly and the thread is 
not broken after each seam, but is carried over to 
the next shoe. 



Here you see another sewing machine which 
is stitching the top of the shoe to the vamp. 
This machine sews up several such seams every 
minute. The workman operating it must be 
highly skilled. 



This little machine looks something like n 
mother’s sewing machine. It punches the lit- §1 
tie holes that make a pretty pattern on the §| 
tips of your “Sunday” shoes. 



The leather in your shoes has to be thinned §| 
at the seams so they will not be so bulky and j§ 
clumsy. Just beyond the cog wheel is an §| 
emery disc that revolves rapidly over the p 
leather where the seam is to be and files it 1 
thinner. = 

E=j 

Philadelphia and Chicago. The big- | 
gest shoe factories are in New Eng- | 

Where Great ^ an d but there are many | 
Factories large factories in other | 

^ re parts of the country. | 

Thousands of men and women work 1 
in these factories, but not one of them | 
could make a shoe. Each one does I 




*« 


546 













*\mmm . 1111111111 ...... THE LEATHER INDUSTRY ..... 

| A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 




Putting 

the 

Shoe 

Together 


Here is a machine that takes the shoe as you 
see it at the right and stretches it to the shape 
of the foot by means of little iron fingers. 
When it is stretched just right, the machine 
nails the leather on the wooden last with a 
dozen or so little nails as shown in the insert 
at the left. 



| just one of more than a hundred 
| things. 

| A little over fifty years ago one 
| man did everything. An old time 
| shoemaker was a clever workman, 
| but it took him a day and a half to 
| make a pair of shoes, with a boy to 

| How the Oil wait 011 him ' He went 
I Shoemaker from farm to farm with 

| Worked a box of tools. He Stood 

| children on sheets of paper and 

| drew patterns of their feet. No- 

| tice how the pioneer mother is 


doing it in the picture. He gave j 
them black, tarny shoemaker’s wax | 
to chew. In children’s shoes he put | 
copper tip toes so they could scuff j 
all they liked. Red morocco tops | 
were stitched in very nice Sunday | 
boots. | 

When Lincoln was president so | 
many men had to go to be soldiers | 
in the Civil War, that there were | 
not enough left to do the work. | 
Something had to be done about | 
that. All sorts of machines began | 


** 


♦,» 

*♦ 


547 




&IIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH PICTURED KNOWLEDGE uiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiBiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiininiiimiiiiiii^ 


A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 



This machine shapes the toe down smoothly to the last. A wire is strung around the toe to 
hold it in place, and the leather is nailed down around the heel as in the insert at the top. 



The first picture shows the edges trimmed off. In the second, a strip called the “welt,” to which 
the sole is fastened, is partly sewed on. 



Here you see the shoe with the welt all sewed on and a gummy mass of cork composition rubbed 
over the bottom of the inner sole to make it waterproof. A piece at the middle, called the “shank,” 
has been tacked in place. 


to be made—machines to cut wheat, 
to sew clothing and to make shoes. 
When the One man at a machine, 
Work Was with a waterfall or a 
First Divided s t eam engine to turn 

the wheels, could do the work of ten 
men. Time was lost if he moved 
about from one machine to another 
to do different things. So each 
worker sat at one machine and did 
the same thing to many pairs of 
shoes, every day. 

In a shoe factory today some 
strong men do nothing but unload 
bales and boxes of leather and other 


materials from freight cars. Others 
are in the stock rooms filling orders 
What a from the foremen of de- 

Busy partments. Messenger 

‘Place! boys run back and forth. 

Trucks are loaded and wheeled into 
elevators. Supplies are lifted and 

trundled from floor to floor of big 
brick factories. 

Story the Old Shoe Tells 

Have you an old shoe that you 
can take to pieces? You will need 
a stout knife, a tack puller and a 
hammer. Pry the heel layers apart. 


ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiin 


548 






^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE LEATHER INDUSTRY illiiiiiiilllllllliliiiliiilliiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiH 


A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 



This picture shows the shoe with the outer sole sewed on. The insert shows the shoe with the 
surplus leather half trimmed off. After it is trimmed it goes to the machine below, which is the 
noisiest and one of the'most powerful in the factory. It stitches on the sole and must be heavy and 
strong for that work. Three or four of these machines running at once will shake a large building. 


| Find the welt strip on the upper 
| edge of the sole, the steel shank that 
| braces the instep, and 

= i4. n atomy - • /y • • • 

= r ar the stiffening pieces in 

= of a onoe & x 

| heel and toe. How many 

| parts there are, and how neatly 
| everything is fitted together ! Exact 
| cutting of every part of a shoe is 
| very important. 

The cutting rooms in a shoe fac- 
| tory have many windows. They are 
| full of big tables, with flying wheels 
| and belts over them. Each table has 
| a different material on it. The cut- 
11 ting is done with dies. Dies are 
| like cooky or biscuit cutters, except 
| that they are of heavy steel with 
| razor edges. Leather is slipped 
| along a table, under a die. Down 
| it comes like a steam hammer and 
| cuts through sole leather. 

Stamp! Stamp! Stamp! A 

♦♦ 


whole hide is quickly cut into soles, j 
heel pieces and welt strips. On | 
other tables the shoe uppers are cut. | 
q u t i e Each upper of a laced | 

Cutting shoe is in three pieces, j 

Tables A buttoned shoe is in | 

four. The vamp is the piece over | 
the toe to the instep. Two side | 
pieces cover the instep and ankle. | 
A button shoe has a flap. Some | 
shoes have a separate heel vamp, j 
The vamp may be of patent leather | 
or calf, and the sides of kid, mo- | 
rocco goat or kangaroo. Then, | 
there are the insole of soft leather, | 
the heel and toe stiffening, the back | 
strap, the facing, the tongue and the | 
muslin lining. All the pieces for | 
one pair are tied in one bundle. 

Just Watch Them Make Your Shoes 

Follow a bundle and see your | 

♦V 


549 







PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

A Trip Through a Shoe Factory 


Here you see the machine that nails the heel on. When the shoe leaves it. it looks like the insert 
at the upper left-hand corner. 



The workman is here taking the last out of the finished shoe, which is now ready to be dressed 
and polished for market. 


shoes made. The first workman 
sews only the back seam, the next 
straps this seam. The third faces 
the front edges, or sews on the but- 
top hole flap. The fourth faces the 
top and flap. The fifth makes the 


button holes. The vamp is sewed on. 

The Work A b °y _ clamps a shoe- 
of the upper into a machine, 

Button Boy drops the proper num¬ 
ber of buttons into a little steel 
hopper, pushes a lever and in a min- 


^llllllllllllllllllUlillllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllH^ 


550 












|>iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiI!iiihiiiiiiiiiii... mu . iimnin THE LEATHER INDUSTRY ■..... lull . ill..... . .wmig 

All Done in Four Minutes 




These two pictures show different styles of finished shoes. All this that has taken so long to tell 
requires only four minutes to do. Wouldn’t the shoemakers of a century ago open their eyes at that? 


| ute out comes the shoe with the but- 
| tons sewed on. Eyelets are punched 
| and hammered in, in the same magic 
| way. A boy can sew on five thou- 
| sand or more buttons a day. But 
| he has to be a bright boy, and mind 
| his work. Careless workmen can 
| ruin delicate machines. 

The finished uppers are sent to 
| the soling shop. Into each small 
| machine is clamped a wooden last. 
| The upper is stretched over the last. 
| The edges are lapped an inch over 
| the soft insole that has been tacked 
| onto the last. The welt-strip, shaved 
| thin on the inner edge, and clipped 
| so it can be bent, is curved around 
| the toe, and carried to the heel. 
| Insole, welt and upper are then 
| stitched together and put back on 
| the last. A steel strip or shank is 
I set down the middle of the sole, 


from the heel to the ball of the foot. | 
When the thick, outer sole is tacked | 
on it is sewed to the welt, outside | 
of the upper. On a new pair of | 
shoes you can see the pretty yellow | 
stitches. The heels are made of | 
several layers of sole leather, nailed j 
together. Machines trim and polish | 
"Black the heels and the edges | 

Your Shoes of the soles. Then the I 

° ,r ‘ shoes are blacked and | 

polished with whirling wheels and | 
brushes and put into boxes. | 

What kind of shoes do you want? | 
“Number two, D last, patent | 
leather vamp, calf top, button, ex- | 
tension sole.” i 


A New Pair Every Four Minutes! 

There you are! Just four min- | 
utes to make them by the factory | 
clock. The material passed through | 


♦♦ 


551 






t* 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦♦ 


Shoes Take 
Longer 


the hands of over a hundred work¬ 
men. To make a “turned,” or single 
Baby's sole kid shoe for a baby 

or lady, takes a little 
longer. The upper is 
put on the sole wrong side out, 
sewed and turned right side out. 
That makes a very soft dress shoe. 

No other children in the world 
have such neat, strong, comfortable 
shoes as you have. Little Dutch 
children wear wooden shoes that 
they have to scrub every Saturday. 
Japanese children wear straw san¬ 
dals tied on with strings between 
the toes. Chinese children have 
cloth shoes with thick, felt soles. In 

How Shoes warm countries every- 
Talk History where you would find 
andQeografchy p e0 pi e wearing sandals 

of straw, wood or leather, or bright 
colored, heelless slippers. In very 
cold countries people wear high 
boots with the hair left on. In 
some countries you would have 


to wear soles without shoes, in others 
shoes without soles. 

The sandal is just a sole held on 
with straps. -A moccasin is a bag, 
or pouch, pulled around the ankle 
with a draw string. Don’t you 
wonder who it was that had the 
bright idea of sewing a sandal to a 
moccasin and making a shoe? Peo¬ 
ple have always thought so much of 
their shoes that they put them into 
stories. .There is a story of Puss in 
Boots, the Giant with the Seven 
League Boots, Goody Two Shoes, 
the Old Woman Who Lived in a 
Shoe, and Cinderella and the Crys¬ 
tal Slipper. It must have been a 
little princess in sparkling, fairy 
slippers who invented that pretty 
heel-and-toe dance that fits the old 
rhyme about: 

Do you see my— 


a 



Do you see my- 
Do you see my 
new shoes?” 




♦♦ 


:: 


552 









% IPmE 


♦v 


THE LEATHER INDUSTRY 

Some of a Shoe’s “Queer Relations” 


; 


WSm«. 






a 




... 








1: 


M 










1 


To Wash Many Faces 

If you had to guess what these were, wouldn’t you say they were slabs of marble? But they’re 
not; they are big pieces of soap, ready to be cut up into cakes. They are made in the stock yards 
from the fatty waste. 


= Sheepskin Scraps 

These men are trimming off the parts of the sheep hides which cannot be used for leather. They 
are not wasted, but used to make—what do you suppose? glue! 

^IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


553 










glum...... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ...... mmS 

| Some of a Shoe’s ‘Queer Relations” 


Sandpaper and Fiddle Strings 

These are long strips of sandpaper hung up to dry. But, you ask, what has sandpaper to do with 
cattle or sheep? It is made in the stock yards to use up the hoofs, scraps, and other refuse, which 
are turned into glue and used to stick the sand to the paper. 


m ; 




■ - .. 


: y 


; fc'%sSMiL ' Vi 

M.': ; 

. .. ILII 


. 


This picture shows strings of intestines being stretched and dried. They will be used for violin 
strings, tennis rackets, surgical ligatures and many other things. 


SI 


♦♦ 


554 










































*> 

♦# 


THE LEATHER INDUSTRY 

Some of a Shoe’s ‘Queer Relations” 


This picture shows the big roller machines that prepare the hair for curled hair mattresses and 
= furniture. 


The girls in this picture are cutting buttons and pipe mouthpieces from bits of the shin bones 
of cattle. = 


Here are thousands of “bone” hairpins being made out of the split and flattened horns and hoofs. 















s^iiiunniinnniiiimiuiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiuiiiiitiiiiiii pictured KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiiiiiiiiii»iiiiiiii^ 


What Becomes of the Hair? 



In this picture the hair and wool is being scraped off from pelts and sorted ready for cleaning. 


Little Shoemakers 



After the earliest pioneer period when the mothers made the moccasin shoes for the children, 
there came a time when the colonists had shoemakers’ tools, and shoes like those we wear today 
were made by the fathers in the home. Then came the shoemakers, and finally the big shoe factories. 

These children are showing, in their physical exercise, how the old shoemaker used to make and 
mend shoes. If you want to try this exercise, kneel on your right knee, put your left hand closed 
tightly over the shoe, which you hold on your left knee. With your right hand pick up a shoe peg. 
On the count “One,” pick up the shoe peg; “Two,” place it in the shoe; “Three,” drive it in with 
the hammer in your right hand. 



556 


















'T'HE picture on the left is from the 
painting “The Call to Prayer” by 
Gerome, the famous French artist who 
in his pictures has given us such true 
and interesting accounts of Eastern 
habits, Eastern thought and Eastern 
art. The muezzin or priest and his boy 
helper, in order to get to the dizzy top 
of that minaret had to climb up a shaky 
ladder exposed to the wind; and this, 
until you get used to it, makes you feel 
shaky too. 

On the top of the minaret you see 
the crescent, the sign of the Mohammedan faith. The Mohammedans consider it a 
sacrilege to have birds sit on this sacred emblem. Yet it is a part of their religion to be 
kind to animals. So they provide roosting places for the birds around the crescent, but for 
fear the bird visitor may not take the hint the crescent is fixed with swinging weights to 
switch him off. This device just as much as says: “Don’t you see that perch?” The 
muezzin is here calling to prayer just as he did when they first began to use the coffee 
berries to keep awake during the long services in the mosque. Of course, you know what 
those two berries are in the cup. The map with the steam from the coffee cup behind it 
shows the coffee regions of the world. Our story of coffee will tell you about the two little 
Arabians who are carrying it and the people making the journey to Mecca shown on 
the right. 

THE STORY OF COFFEE 


[UNDREDS of 
years ago, the 
children of Ara¬ 
bia knew, as well 
as we know to¬ 
day, that it is not 
good manners to 
go to sleep in 
church. When in their tent home 

In the Ancient Ulthcdeseit, chuicll 
House in was just a bright 

ecca prayer rug, spread 

anywhere on the sand. But once 
a year the whole family made a 


pilgrimage to Mecca. They went 
to sell the goat skins and camels’ 
hair, and to buy what was needed 
in the great fair. But, also, they 
went for the week of prayer. 

During the long services in the 
Ancient House, or sacred mosque, 
it was hard for the children to 
stay awake. So their mother 
gave them some little seeds to eat 
to keep them from becoming 
drowsy. They had one round 
side, and one flat, grooved side. 
They were crisp and spicy and a 


557 























































































































....... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..... 


| little bitter. They came from a 
| small tree that grew wild on the 
| mountain slopes of Kaffa, Arabia, 
| above the sea. Mahemet and 
| Naidee called them Kaffa bunns, or 
1 seeds. We call them coffee beans. 


The “Keep Awake” Medicine in the 
1 Kaffa Bunns 

The Kaffa bunns had in them a 
| medicine that kept people awake. 
| Coffee In Mecca, pilgrims 

I Coffee wanted to stay awake as 

| Land many hours as possible; 

I so everyone carried the roasted 


From Mecca, the Kaffa bunns | 
were carried to India, Egypt and | 
Turkey. The new drink was offered | 
to guests in the Sultan’s palace, the | 
merchant’s house and the shiek’s | 
tent. | 

How Mocha Coffee Gets to Market 


As you look at the picture “How 
Mocha Coffee Gets to Market” just 
r,. . imagine that you are a 

Lhscovermg ° 

the Coffee traveler and have sud- 

Farmer denly come upon this 

group without knowing anything 
about them except that they had 



How Mocha Coffee Gets to Market 


seeds to nibble. Somebody discov¬ 
ered that a pleasant drink could be 
made by steeping the powdered 
seeds in boiling water. Soon there 
were coffee booths in the market, 
and near the mosque. For a small 
coin anyone could buy a cup of very 
hot, thick, black coffee, sugared un¬ 
til it was as sweet as syrup. People 
drank that because they liked it. 


brought these bags of Mocha coffee 
down to the water’s edge for some 
passing vessel. You would ask 
yourself: “Who are these people? 
What water is this and what are 
they doing here?” Now, in your 
own library you can have all the 
delightful experience that a little 
girl did who played traveller with 
her mama and helped her to find 




558 




♦♦♦ 
♦ ♦ 


THE STORY OF COFFEE 


Afi 


| how Mocha coffee got to mar- 
| ket, we turned (as you should 
| do in reading this) to the map of 
| Asia and there found Mocha spelled 
| “Mukha” and that it was right near 
| the narrow strait leading into the 
| Red Sea. The map also showed 
| that there are low mountains from 
| this point all the way to the north 
| end of the Red Sea. That accounts 
| for the steep banks shown on the 
| farther side of the water beyond the 
| group. These steep banks rise to 
| the low mountains on whose slopes 
| the best coffee is grown. But who are 
| the people? The little girl rcmem- 
I ~ bered that there were 

I Queer People 

1 We Found pictures ol the laces and 
| h y the head-dress of all sorts 

of Asiatic peoples in one 
| of our encyclopedias. The very 
| thing! She looked and there was 
| a man with his hair done up just 
| like the hair of the man in the pic- 
| ture. The book said he belonged 
| to the Hodeidas and that the Ho- 
| deidas were a tribe settled on lands 
| which they cultivated. So evidently 
| this is a Hodeida coffee farmer and 
| his family. The Arabs of the des- 
| ert, on the other hand, are warriors 
| with wandering herds of sheep and 
| camels and they look down on these 
| farmers who live by the cultivation 
| of the soil. When they get a chance 
| they rob them, so you see why this 
| farmer has that dagger in the 
| sheath on his arm. Did you ever see 
| a sheath carried in this way before? 
| It isn’t the way the old knights used 
| to carry their swords, is it? 

This Arabian coffee farmer is 
| waiting for a ship on its way 
| through the strait so that his coffee 
| can go on to be sold to the wealthy 
| people who can afford to buy Mocha 
1 coffee in London, Paris and other 


great cities of Europe and America. | 

When coffee houses were set up in I 
London and European capitals, not | 
nearly enough coffee could be grown | 
in Arabia to supply the demand. g 
And coffee refused to grow in cold- | 
er northern countries. j 

How Mr. Kaffa Bunn Came to America = 

J ust about that time many ships § 
were sailing to the New World of | 
America. Every ship bound for the | 
warm islands and coasts around the | 
Gulf of Mexico and Carribean Sea. | 
brought seeds of cotton, sugar cane [ 
and coffee. A Dutch captain | 

You Can planted a handful of j 

Smell the coffee beans in Dutch | 

Coffee Grow- Guiana, South America. 1 

mq too! , r = 

Returning a tew years i 
later, he found just one fine little j 

coffee tree. He may have found it | 

by following his nose. Three miles § 
out at sea he could have smelled its j 
rich fragrance, like that of the jes- | 
samine or, as some say, the white. | 
sweet-scented honeysuckle. 

It was a gay little pilgrim, not j 
at all like the sober children who | 
came to cold New Eng- j 

land on the Mayflower. | 

As bright of plumage as | 
a tropic bird, it spilled | 
its perfume on the warmest air, of | 
the bluest sea of the new world. As | 
tall as a big lilac bush, it was as | 
slender as a birch. Its evergreen j 
leaves were six inches long, shining | 
as Christmas holly and tough as | 
rubber leaves. From the axils of | 
the paired leaves grew clusters of | 
snow white, five-parted tubular flow- | 
ers. The humming birds had found g 
that insects and honey were in the | 
bottoms of the tiny trumpets. These | 
jewels of the air darted and hovered | 
all over the tree, and poked their j 
long, needle bills into every little j 


“The 

Qay 

Little 

Pilgrim 




V 

♦ 4 


559 


..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..imiig 

I The Coffee Plant Likes to Look at the Sun I 



The ccyffee tree, like the sunflower, is very fond of sunshine, so 
its leaves are supported by strong stems in stiff, straight rows, 
each one having as much surface exposed to the light as possible. 
See how the leaves all face one way—the direction from which 
the sun is shining—like soldiers in rank. 


I flower flagon of honey-sweet nectar. 

Blooms Every Day for Months 

| There were not 9 nly blossoms on 
| that tree, but green and red fruit, 
| making it a lovely thing to look at. 
| The flowers of the coffee tree fall 
| in two or three days, but new ones 
| yph a t a open every day for four 
| Robin Would or five months. The 
| ‘Probably green fruit turns pink, 

| m then scarlet, then crim- 

| son. A northern robin would be 
| sure to think the coffee berries were 
| cherries, or haw apples or cran- 
| berries. But if he should eat them 
| he would be apt to have a pain 
| in his little inside. Coffee is not 
| good for little birds and little boys 
| and girls. The pulp is soft and 
| yellow. But the two seeds that lie 
| with their flat, grooved faces to- 
| gether, are as tough as horn, and 


they have a skin as tough as the nest 
of the apple seed. 

Where Mr. Kaffa Bunn Likes to Live 

That one tree, planted about two 
hundred and fifty years ago, is said 
to be the grandfather of all the cof¬ 
fee trees in America. Its seeds were 
carried to the warm coasts of South 
and Central America and Mexico, 
and to islands of the West Indies. 

The Grand ^ re ^ USe< ^ tO grOW in 
father Who some places. It liked the 
HelfsMama same temperature as hu- 

Get Breakfast , r 

man beings—irom sixty- 
four to seventy by the thermometer. 
A mountain side, half a mile or so 
above a warm sea, just suited it. 
The soil had to be clean and sweet, 
red with iron dust or gray with rich 
mud washed down from old vol¬ 
canoes. It would grow on both 
sides of the equator, in the old world 






560 







THE STORY OF COFFEE 

and in the new, on mountainous 
islands and coasts. The little trees 
flourished in Java and other islands 
of the East Indies, in the Philippines 
and the volcanic islands of Hawaii. 


But the larg¬ 
est tract of 
country good 
for coffee 
culture was 
found in 
Southern 
Brazil. 

“Finger Trips” 

to Coffee 
Land 

Run your 
finger down 
the east coast 
of South 
America past 
Rio de Jane¬ 
iro to the 
seaport of 
Santos. You 
have seen 
the names 
Santos and 
Rio on cof¬ 
fee bins in 
groceries, 

haven’t you? The city of Santos is 
the greatest coffee market in the 
world. It has great coffee ware- 

Notice When houses that hold as much 
You Go to as wheat elevators. Its 
the Grocery harbors are full of coffee¬ 
carrying vessels, that float the flags 
of many nations. 

Just behind Santos is another city, 
San Paulo. This is Portuguese for 
St. Paul. San Paulo is the receiv¬ 
ing station for the coffee that comes 
from the north, south and west. 
From there, and from hundreds of 
miles along the coast, the land climbs 
and climbs, in a gentle slope, to a 
great plateau. The seaward slope 


A Berry-Laden Coffee Tree 


is broken by round hills and broad 
valleys. Above them rough sierras, 
or low mountains, rise from the pla¬ 
teau. Exactly on the Tropic of Cap¬ 
ricorn that would be a very hot 

country, but, 


© Keystone View Co. 

The small, graceful coffee tree is particularly pretty when 
its slender branches are weighed down with fruit as in the 
picture. The leaves are bright green and glossy while “the 
green fruit turns pink, then scarlet, then crimson.” 


high above 
the sea and 
guarded b v 
a mountain 
wall, it is as 
moist and 
pleasant as a 
p r o p e r 1 y 
heated and 
ventilated 
school room. 

From San 
Paulo you 
can travel on 
cog-wheel 
railroads, all 
over the cof¬ 
fee country, 
climbing hills 
and dropping 
into vallevs. 

j 

There are 
few towns. 
Mile after 
mile is man¬ 
tled with trees as green as emerald. 
Dividing the fields are roads as red 
as a brick yard—a glaring, terra- 

Air Sweet cotta red, from the 
Enough to Be quantities of iron dust 
Bottled that * s * n j-] ie soil. The 

air is heavy with the fragrance of 
coffee blossoms. You wonder why 
they don’t try to catch that perfume 
and put it in bottles! 

Why Coffee Trees Are Like Babies 

The coffee trees are started in 
nurseries, like the tea bushes, and 
transplanted like orchard trees, but 
much closer together. For a few 
years the young trees have to be 




V# 


56i 



... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ... 


On a Coffee Plantation 



© Keystone View Co. © Keystone View Co. 


|| At the left the ripe coffee berries are being picked, at the right they arei being carried home on 

the heads of the pickers. Coffee plantations are usually large, some of them having as many a^ 

H five million trees. As on big cotton plantations in the South, the coffee workers live in houses be¬ 
longing to the plantation owner, trade at his store, and sometimes spend their whole lives on the 
= plantation. Each family has its own quota of trees—from one to three thousand, and the members 
of the family are expected to take full charge of the trees in their care, from planting to picking. 

— E= 

| weeded and hoed by hand. Then think the trees grow better when | 

| the plow is used to turn up the soil, they are allowed to reach their | 

| as in a corn field. Some planters full height of twenty feet, but | 


Coffee Raising in Central America 



H © Keystone View Co. © Keystone View Co. g 


In the picture on the left Nicaraguan girls are sorting coffee. Nicaragua encourages people to 
raise coffee by offering a bounty of five cents on every tree over five thousand. 

The other picture shows Costa Ricans turning over the green coffee berries. This must be done 
frequently so that the coffee will dry evenly. Costa Rica’s climate is ideal for coffee growing. 



562 













^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim THE STORY OF COFFEE uiiiuiuiiimiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

| Here Comes Our Breakfast Coffee I 


©Keystone View Co. © Keystone Vieio Co. 

At the left, sacks of coffee are being unloaded at Havana, Cuba. In the righthand picture a 
loading machine is delivering sacks to a vessel alongside the docks at Santos, Brazil. Santos is the 
greatest coffee city in the world. It has many storage warehouses for coffee and excellent wharf 
accommodations. In its harbor, ships from all nations of the globe may be seen taking on cargoes, 
as this one is doing. 


| most growers trim 
| them back to 
| stocky bushes, six 
| or eight feet high. 
| If cared for, a 
| coffee tree will 
| live for fifty years 
| and give three or 
| four crops in a 
| season. 

In a coffee or- 
| chard that is in 
| b 1 o o m and fruit, 
| there is always a 
| buzzing and hum- 
| ming and fl utter- 
I ing of birds and 
| butterflies and in- 
| sects, and armies 
| of red ants march- 
1 ing and counter- 
| marching from 
| trees to ground 
| nests. The ants 
1 bite the pickers 


Homes of the Coffee Grower’s Lit¬ 
tle “Policemen” 



© Keystone View Co. 


These are the homes of the ants that 
help the coffee-grower by biting the coffee 
bugs and the coffee rats. Like all trop¬ 
ical countries, Brazil has a very large sup¬ 
ply of insects. The ant hills in the picture 
are three feet high and a foot and a half in 
diameter. 


:: 


sometimes, but | 
they are friends | 
of the trees, biting | 
the coffee bugs | 
and the coffee rat | 
that gnaws the | 
bark. | 

How the Children 

Help 1 

The pickers do | 
not usually carry | 
baskets or bags, j 
They spread a | 
sheet on the | 
ground, around a | 
tree, and drop the j 
red fruit on that. | 
They pick only | 
the berries whose j 
dark redskinshave | 
begun to wrinkle, j 
like an over ripe j 
cranberry. They | 
go over all the | 
trees every two or j 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 


563 



























2 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


:: 


The Plant 


four weeks all 
winter. South of 
the equator, you 
know, the Fourth 
of July comes in 
the winter, and 
Christmas in the 
summer. When 
coffee was taken to 
Brazil it had to 
learn a new order 
of seasons. Men, 
women and chil¬ 
dren work in the 
field. They are 
dark - skinned, 
black-eyed, scarlet¬ 
lipped Spanish peo¬ 
ple, whose language 
is like music. Some 
are native Indians 
or free N egroes. 

The children sit oir 
the ground to strip 
the lowest branches. 

When the trees are 
tall, men use lad¬ 
ders to reach the highest branches. 


That Masquerades 
Coffee 


Chicory grows wild in many parts of the 
United States. Its root, roasted and 
browned, makes a drink that looks and 
tastes like coffee, except that the delicacy 
of flavor or aroma is missing. Chicory 
does not contain caffeine, the drug in the 
coffee that makes you stay awake. 


How the Twins Are Sent to Mill 

Other men rake the berries from 
the sheets and put them into bags 

A True Coffee Lover 


This is an Arab, squatting in the desert, sipping 
the delicious beverage that was discovered by his 
ancestors. 


as or baskets. On some 
plantations the 
hauling is done in 
mule carts; but on 
the very large ones 
there are private 
railroads, with 
cart-like cars pulled 
by locomotives. A 
train loaded with 
the fruit rushes 
away to the mill. 

The berries are 
emptied into great 
hoppers, are 
“squashed” between 
rollers to mash and 
loosen the pulp 
from the seeds. The 
seeds drop through 
holes and are car¬ 
ried to tanks where 
they are scoured by 
machinery. The 
two seeds separate. 
Each is as white as 
a navy bean. It is 
inclosed in a thin skin. This skin is 
as tough as celluloid. 

How Many Suits of Clothes Th ese Little 
Seeds Wear! 

The white seeds are spread in the 
sun, on yards paved with brick or 
tile or cement, to dry. It takes sev¬ 
eral weeks to cure them properly. 
The heaps of seeds are raked and 
turned over every day. They are 
covered at night, with canvas, and 
protected from rain. When per- 

UmireVas fect, y dr . V there is a 

for the great nut cracking. 

Berries The white hulls are 

broken between rolls 
run by steam, and the grayish green 
seeds fall out. There is another 

silvery skin, as thin as tissue paper, 
that is rubbed off and blown out, 


V 

M 


564 







||i]|iiiii)iiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiim THE STORY OF COFFEE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 


New York Coffee Kxchange 



== © Brown Bros. 

The picture gives you a glimpse of the brokers buying and selling coffee in the New York Stock 
H Exchange. 


like chaff from a threshing machine. 
The seeds are sorted, in uniform 
sizes, by sifting. They are shipped 
to Santos in brown bags. 

The Different Kinds of Coffee 

You can buy many kinds of coffee 
in groceries—Mocha, Java, Rio, 
peaberry, Porto Rican and Santos. 
But you must not think that all 
Mocha coffee is from Arabia, or 
Java from the East Indies. All va¬ 
rieties are grown in Brazil and the 
West Indies. And there is a very 
great difference in the quality and 
price. A mixture of . 
one-third Mocha and 
two-thirds Java is 
very fine. If you 
buy the green berries, 
the round, plump, 
small ones are better 
than the large, flat 
seeds. When the 
coffee is roasted the 


quality can be told by smelling, if 
you have an educated nose. The 
finest coffees have a rich aroma. 

People used to buy coffee green 
and roast it themselves, 
but found it hard to 
brown it evenly without 
scorching it and spoiling the flavor. 
Now coffee is roasted bv wholesale 


Why 
Coffee 
Is Glazed 



3 

3 


Here is an American soldier boy holding his steaming 
coffee pot over a little campfire. 


V 


♦♦ 










grocers and coffee houses in big iron 
cylinders that turn over a fire and 
most people buy it already browned. 
The seeds are tossed about in a uni¬ 
form heat. They are glazed, while 
hot, with a gum or syrup, to shut in 
all the flavor, Afternoon C< 

then sealed in «. 

air-tighttin ’• * 

cans. When / 

you buy a can 
the gr(>cer will 
open it and 
grind the cof- \ 
fee fo 


water. Even in boiling water 
coffee has to be “settled’’ to the bot¬ 
tom with a white of egg. We like 
our coffee a clear, rich brown, with 
cream and sugar added. The French 
people use hot milk in very strong 

»e in Turkey coffee. Some 

x people boil 

,v _ 

coffee, some 

■ ^ Ml ... i 

||j mk drip it. Both 

him Bmm w a y s a r e 

good. Turkish 
IL people grind 

X fc their coffee as 

I-32SBL fine as flour 

PJy03Xl and drink it 

M t h i c k a n d 

black and 
sweet. 


r you in 
a tall, red iron 
mill. You 
should not 
buy coffee al¬ 
ready ground. 
That is easily 
a d ulterated 
with chicory 
root and 
doesn’t keep 
its flavor so 
w ell as the 
unofround. 


Coffee 
Given Away 
That Is 
Too Precious 
to Sell 


566 





THE WORLD 
AT ITS WORK 


THE FISHING INDUSTRY 




you were going 
fishing, where 
would you go? 

Perhaps you 
think that a fool¬ 
ish question. 
Fish live in the water, of course. 
So wheat grows on land; but you 
would not expect to find wheat in 
every field, would you? If you 
fished in some rivers, lakes and 
seas, you would have no luck, or 
you would catch things that you 
could not eat. There is no doubt 
about what you would take with 
you. Hooks, lines and nets, are 
the fishermen’s tools in all the 
waters of the world. 

The very largest fish¬ 
ing boat that sails is 
just a rough, water 
There is a cook on board. 


Camming 
in the 
VPater 


camp. 


The men sleep in bunks and 


wear rubber 
boots and oil¬ 
skin coats and \ 
hats. The in¬ 
side of the 
boat i s di- 
v i d e d into C. 
bunks, bins 
for salt, bait, 
fishing tackle 
and fish. 


Bidding the Fishing Fleet Good-Bye 

When a big fishing fleet leaves 
port, everyone in town comes 
down to see it off. The boats may 

A Life gone for three 

of Hardship months. Some of the 
an <l men may never come 

Danger back. A fisherman’s 

life is one of hardship and danger. 
There is a beautiful, sad poem by 
Charles Kingsley called “The 















































































































$iii)iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii)iiiiiii)h PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiii^ 


| Three Fishers.” It is all about how 
| “men must work and women must 
| weep,” of boatmen that never come 
| back, and storm waves that moan 
| over the harbor bar. The men kiss 
| and cling to their dear ones, and 
| wave from the deck. The women 
1 and children watch from the shore 


Haddock, halibut, blue fish and pil- | 
chards, or “sardines” are caught in | 
great numbers, too. Salmon and | 
™ shad spend a part of their j 

the Sea lives in the ocean, a part j 

is Harvested j n rivers. Of fresh | 

water fishes we like white fish and | 
trout best, but eat a great many bass, | 


Taking the Fish Off the Roof 



Fishing is the chief industry of Newfoundland and a large proportion of the fish caught there are 
cod. Here you see how the fisherman’s wife dries the catch. Did you ever dry walnuts on the 
woodshed roof? After drying in the sun all day, the fish are taken in at night and put into a dry 
shed. Mother is here collecting the codfish from the family roof .at nightfall, just as she takes the 
washing off the line. 


| until the last sail disappears. They 
| remember the brave men who are 
| out in the fogs and storms on the 
| fishing banks. Grandfathers and 
| small boys are the only men left in 
| a fishing village. 

How do men know where to look 
| for their harvests of the sea! You 
j know that out of all plants on the 
| earth, only a few kinds are good to 
| eat. So it is with land animals and 
| fish. The chief food fishes of the 
| sea are cod, herring and mackerel. 


perch and sturgeon. And then there | 
are oysters, crabs and other shell | 
fish. | 

These Fish Know Their Geographies 

In one way the sea fishes that we j 
know best are like birds. They | 
come north in the summer. Just | 
as wild geese and ducks stream | 
across the sky in great flocks, so cod | 
and herring and mackerel swim in | 
schools. In the spring mackerel ap- | 
pear off Cape Hatteras and swim, a | 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 




568 




: t •" - 


THE FISHING INDUSTRY 

The Fog Warning 




. 



Fishermen can read the weather signs from the sky and water almost as easily as you can g 
read the weather man’s predictions in the newspaper. The sky, overcast with dark, angry-looking 
clouds, and the white-capped waves tell this fisherman that rough weather is coming, so he has 
drawn up his anchor and is pulling hard for shelter. He is watching the sky rather anxiously, 
perhaps wondering if he can reach safety before the storm breaks. The artist who painted this |§ 
= picture, Winslow Homer, is noted for his pictures of the sea. |1 

| wide river of fish, up the eastern old world they go to shallow waters | 


coast to our country. The fishing 
Migration boats of New England 
of the Fish g 0 south to meet them, 

then follow them, clear up into the 


west of Norway. In the new world 
they collect on the “grand banks” 
off New Foundland. 

In the fishing seasons these places 


The Nets at Work 



If a diver could see under water as well as in the air, this is how trawl and drift nets would 
look to him. “The trawl is a bag net, one hundred feet long, lined with pockets of finer netting. 
The “trawl warp” in the illustration is a stout manila rope. “For the smaller fish that swim nearer 
the surface, the drift net is used. The lower edge is weighted with sinkers, the upper is floated 
with cork and wooden buoys.” The picture also shows several different types of fishing vessels, 
both steam and sailing craft. 

are dotted with sail boats of many 
„ , nations. The fishing is 

Mow the . .. 

Sea-Birds done from small row 

Helf> boats. Each boat is in 

charge of an old fisherman who de- 


Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the old 
world the mackerel gather on the 
south coast of Norway. Cod and 
herring travel together, the big cod 
far below the small herring. In the 




V. 


569 









ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiffliniiinmnmniiiimiiiiiinniniiiiiiiinnniiiraiiniiiniiiiiniiiiiiiiii^ 


Packing Herring on the Coast of Scotland 


Herring are dried and salted, then packed for shipping. In this form they are part of the stock = 

in trade of grocery stores everywhere. The picture shows women filling up barrels with them at 
Fraserburgh, Scotland. §§ 



cides where to let 
down the nets. He 
watches the sea 
birds that follow 
the fish and dive 
for those that 
come near the sur¬ 
face. 

The Different Kinds 
of Nets 

There are just 
three kinds of nets 
—the trawl, the 
drift net and the 
seine. The trawl 
is a bag net, one 
hundred feet long, 
lined with pockets 
of finer netting. The mouth of the 
bag is held open by a beam of wood 
that rests on iron stirrups on the 
ocean floor. As it is trawled or 


towed by the boat, 
the bag is spread 
open by the 
weight of the wa¬ 
ter. Big cod, had¬ 
dock and halibut, 
that swim deep 
in the sea are 
trapped in the 
pockets. 

For smaller fish 
that swim nearer 
the surface the 
drift net is used. 
Imagine a tennis 
net from one to 
two and a half 
miles long! The 
lower edge of it is weighted with 
sinkers, the upper is floated with 
cork and wooden buoys. The end 
of a drift net is “shot” out from a 


On the Cold, Gray North Sea 



Here is a North Sea fisherman hauling in 
his lines of jumping, squirming fish, at the 
end of the day. 




♦♦ 


570 




















giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE FISHING INDUSTRY 


boat. Then the boat is pulled away, 
letting the net out as it goes. A little 
flag at the far end, and colored 
buoys strung along the top, show 
just where the net is. The fish swim 
against this wall of netting and are 
caught by the gills in the meshes. 

Seines are short, wall nets not 
over five hundred feet long. They 

Wooden 


knitting miles of nets. The men 
spend their spare time on shore 
mending the nets and drying them 

Troulles on reel Barnes. If left 

the Nets in wet heaps they would 
H ave rot. Trawls are torn on 

the rough sea floor. Big fish tear 
■the nets in their struggles. Dog fish 
bite them. Sometimes a steam boat 

Fish “Nets” 


The Eskimos and Indians long ago discovered how the salmon “get homesick” and come back 
every spring to the cold, fresh water where they were born. The Indians build traps or “nets” of 
small boards, like zigzag, ramshackle fences, across the streams. The picture shows one of these 
structures built across the Chilkoot River in Alaska. Though this is a small stream, as you see, 
enough salmon are caught in this way to keep the Indians supplied for several months. 


are used for fishing on coasts and 
in rivers. They are let down out¬ 
side a school of fish. Slowly and 
quietly the ends of the seine are 
brought together. The seine is then 
towed shoreward until the lower 
edge rests on the bottom. The fish 
are thus trapped in a net tub. 

“Fancy Work” of Fishermen’s Wives 

Fish-nets are knitted in long, nar¬ 
row strips, and laced together. The 
best ones are knitted of cotton twine, 
and by hand. The “fancy-work” of 
fishermen’s wives and daughters is 


is blown out of its course and goes 
over the “banks”, tearing the nets 
to pieces. Then, with constant wet¬ 
ting the nets shrink. A shrunken 
herring net can be used to catch sar¬ 
dines in the English channel, and 
the tiny herring on the coast of 
Maine, that we use as sardines. 

How the Fish Are Preserved 

Fish that are wanted fresh for 
the market are packed in ice. Sar¬ 
dines are brought in to the canneries 
as fast as they are caught. When 
the boats stay out for weeks, the fish 


*♦ 


i« 









niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE Hiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii™ 

Catching Chinook Salmon with a Seine 


© Underwood, «£• Underwood 

“Seines are short, wall nets used for fishing on coasts and in rivers. They are let down out¬ 
side a school of fish. Slowly and quietly the ends of the seine are brought together. The seine is 
then towed shoreward until the lower edge rests on the bottom. The fish are thus trapped in a net 
tub.” Chinook salmon are the biggest variety known and here we see men fishing for them with a 
seine in the Columbia River, Oregon. The teams of horses were used to haul in the net. The float¬ 
ing wooden blocks you see are strung along the rope at the upper edge of the net to keep it afloat. 

Emptying a Salmon Trap 


© Underwood Underwood 

This squirming, wriggling mass of salmon was caught in the net trap from which they are being 
emptied. The fishing boat is a small one on Puget Sound. 


572 


JmM 












M 


THE FISHING INDUSTRY 

Cleaning Codfish 


© Underwood & Underwood 

“Cleaning” fish isn’t such a delicate and particular job on this Gloucester, Massachusetts, wharf 
as it is in your kitchen. Vast numbers of codfish are cleaned here every day during the fishing season. 

In a Norwegian Fish Warehouse 


M © Underwood & Underwood 

The woman in the foreground has just brought in a wheelbarrow full of cleaned fish from a 
fishing vessel nearby. They will be weighed in the rude scale which you see hanging from the ceil¬ 
ing by ropes, then shoveled into the packing box by the woman at the right. The fishing industry 
1 is one of the largest in Norway. 

H . . .mi.Ilium. . ..... . 


573 













♦> 




Loading Fish 



a steam carrierf® Here"we see 'the^oa'deTdorief drit^Sg u"p sCngs! ™"he 1 team™" t *^Th e F b'o^e s of°‘ff h 
hi* toad'wport* ° r ' he fisherman ' The steam vessel ls swifter than the fishing craft, and when ft 


5H 








each fishing boat packs its catch in salt and ice, loads it in boxes on “dories,” which take these boxes to 
are being handed up over the side of the steamboat and will be in port by morning. This arrangement is 
takes the fisherman’s catch ashore for him, he can spend all his time in fishing instead of stopping to haul 



575 









... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ... 


The Result of Twenty Minutes Work 


The Albatross is a government steamer used to explore new fishing “banks” and to study 
the habits of salt-water fish. This trial catch is the result of twenty minutes’ work in a new bank 
off the coast of Alaska—a good catch of fine, big cod and halibut. 


are packed in salt to 
be dried or smoked 
on shore. Ma n y 
fish are brought 
to market alive, in 
tanks of flowing sea 
water. These are 
caught with hooks 
and lines. 

What would you 
think of five thou¬ 
sand hooks on one 
line? First there is 
a big cable with 
two hundred ropes, 
each a hundred feet 
long, strung from 
it. Each rope car- 
ries twenty-five 


A Model Fishing Schooner 


This is the Government fishing schooner 
Grampus. It was built as a model of the 
best type of boat for off-shore fishing. 


shorter lines, with | 
hooks on the ends j 
and each hook | 
17 • r pi 1 is bait- = 

r we 1 housana > = 

Hooks on ed With §j 

One Line a | 

herring or a spiral | 
shell fish with a | 
snail-like animal in | 
it. When such a | 
line is pulled up, | 
there is a lively time | 
on deck to capture | 
thousands of big, | 
flopping fish and | 
hurry them into the | 
tanks. | 

Salmon fishing is j 
done in the rivers of I 


♦V 




576 























THE FISHING INDUSTRY 
‘A Helping Hand” 


** . 


. Here is a little French peasant girl and her fisherman papa. She is working very hard at help- 
mg to row the big boat—you can tell that by the earnest look on her face. And her papa is glad to 
have his little daughter there beside him to “help.” Would you like to wear shoes like hers? 


Where is this scene? Somewhere where they wear wooden shoes, isn’t it? And notice the little 
girl’s cap. Doesn’t it look like a Hollander’s? Two of the boys might be twins. Which two? Do 
you notice where they have left their wooden shoes? What is that little group doing around the 
basket in the background? Why are they working in such shallow water? Where do you go to 
hunt for crabs? Do these children make a business of fishing or are they just doing it for fun? 
Notice the harness on one of the boys, and the “steering gear” which the little girl is handling. 
They are helping support the family and, like Andrew Carnegie when he was a boy, are no doubt 
proud to be “partners” with father and mother. 


S 


The Little Crab Fishers 


(3 


i 


i 



:: 


577 


i 




















our Pacific coast, from the Co¬ 
lumbia, in Oregon, to the Yukon 
, in Alaska. The salmon 

I he Pink . . 

Fleshed minnows are hatched in 

Salmon the cold, snow fed rivers. 

Babes The silver- 

scaled babies find plenty to eat, even 
when their homes are roofed with 
ice. As they grow they move down 
the rivers, and, at last, swim out 
into the ocean. 

When the Fish Get Homesick 

Every spring the full-grown fish 
become homesick and return to the 
places where they were born. The 


Scallops are little shell-fish similar to oysters. 
Unlike oysters they do not lie in beds attached to 
one spot but move by opening and shutting the 
two valves of their shells. Here are several hun¬ 
dred of them that have been brought up in the 
net. 

salmon. They set nets across the 
streams; they use dip nets from 
boats, and nets stretched on water 

In the Great wheels. For the can- 
Salmon neries the greatest num- 

Cannenes ber of salmon are caught 

in net mazes that lead into traps. 
The canneries are on the river banks. 
Chinamen cut off the heads and fins 
of the fish by hand, but they are split, 
scaled, cleaned, and cut into thick 
slices by machinery. Cans filled 


;*;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii...mini.......mini........ 


ttmmmimmmmmmmmimmmmmmmmmmmmmmmiiiiiiiit PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iimmmmmmimmmmimmmimmmmimmmimmimmmiimi£ 

He Doesn’t Look Good to Eat salmon go up the rivers to lay their § 

eggs. They fill the bays and chan- | 
nels so they scarcely have room to j 
swim. They struggle against the j 
spring floods. They leap rapids | 
and dams. A good many are killed j 
on the rocks and in the shallows. j 
Mother fish that reach the old home | 
scoop nests in the river bottom and j 
cover their eggs with gravel. | 

Fishermen know just when and | 
where to look for the home-coming | 


The awkward, bright pink lobster doesn’t look 
as though he were good to eat, but his tender pink 
H flesh is thought to be delicious by most people. 
H Great numbers of lobsters are caught every year 
s on all our coasts and shipped alive to inland cities, 
s Others are canned near the sea where they are 
H caught. 


Scallop Fishing 



















mm THE FISHING INDUSTRY *.. 

Fishing in Different Climes 

h in Japan 


Norway is Famous for Fish 


v- 


© Underwood & Underwood 

The man in the little house built on a 
platform of bamboo poles is a Japanese 
fisherman. He is lowering his net on 
its flexible bamboo frame and expects 
to draw it up again with a “good catch” 
in it. 


© Undencood & Underwood 

This Norwegian fisherman is lowering 
his net from a platform, too, but his 
platform is so high that he has to go up 
a flight of stairs to reach it. 


with fish are put into steam boilers. 
When the fish is cooked, the cans 
are closed, varnished, labelled, and 

The Birds That Help Catch Fish 


A great deal of salmon and much 
of the sea and lake fish come into 
the market fresh. Some is smoked. 

In the Congo Free State 




© Underwood & Underwood 

These are cormorants, the birds which 
the Chinese and Japanese train to go 
fishing. They are water birds and live 
on fish. By tying a string around their 
necks, they are kept from swallowing 
the fish they catch. They have pouches 
under their bills in which they hold the 
fish. 


© Underwood & Underwood 

Here is an Upoto man in blackest 
Africa, making a fishing net. See the 
other nets hung up to dry over poles. 
These African natives are very fond of 
fish and catch a great many of them in 
the rivers and lakes. 


Columbia River and Alaska 
are shipped all over the 


Haddock, or, as the Scotch call it, 
“Finnan haddie,” and herring are 
smoked too. Codfish are salted and 


boxed. 

salmon 

world. 


579 


















PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Fishing in the Holy Land 


The Sea of Galilee was famous for its fish in the time of Christ. His disciples fished from a 
queer, high boat like this one. The Sea of Galilee, really a lake, was renamed “Tiberius” in honor 
of the Roman Emperor. 

In general, the fishermen of the East, on account of the heat and because the fish are more 
easily caught at night, prefer the night to any other time of fishing. Before the sun has gone down, 
they push off their boats, each carrying a lighted torch, and in the course of a few hours, either seen 
out at sea, or on the rivers, has the appearance of an illuminated city. 

They swing the lights out over the boats, which the fish no sooner see than they come to the 
place and then the fishermen cast in the hook or the spear, as circumstances may require. They 
have many amusing sayings about the folly of the fish being attracted by the glare of the torch. 

The American Indians fished in the same way. 


dried. Mackerel are kept in brine. 
Sardines are canned in oil, mustard, 
or tomato sauce. All the shell-fish 
are eaten both fresh and canned. 
There are lobsters, crabs, clams, 
shrimps, and oysters. We know 
oysters the best of all, and eat more 
of them than of all the other shell¬ 
fish put together. 

Life and Adventure in Oyster Land 

Oysters are such lie-a-beds that 
many sea animals have learned 
where to find and eat them. They 
like a warmer climate than cod and 


salmon, and quiet water that never 
freezes over. In our country they 
lie, acres of them together, in inlets, 
a i from Chesapeake Bav, 
Acres of all along the coast 
Oysters into t] ie Q u }f 0 f Mex¬ 

ico. They lie fastened to rocks, and 
to each other, with their shells open, 
for they live on the tiniest animal 
life in the sea water that flow's past 
them. Sometimes a school of star 
fish swim over an oyster bed and 
leave countless shells empty. Bar¬ 
nacles and sea worms eat oysters, 
and a snail-like fish drills a hole in 


♦♦ 


♦♦ 


V 


''r ■ 

I llliil ifl 


580 








giiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE FISHING INDUSTRY iniiiiffliiiiiniiiiiniiiiiiiM 


Fish-Rearing by the Government 


Here you see open-air rearing troughs for the young fish. These troughs are in the Craig 
Brook, Maine, hatchery and contain Atlantic salmon. When young fish are first put in these 
troughs, they are very wild and have to be trained to take artificial food. 

KlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM'INM 


This picture shows a model spawning pond for trout at the Wytheville, Virginia, fish-hatchery. 
The dam between the raceway and the pond is high enough to give the spawning fish a jump of 
seven inches and keep the others back. Fish, when spawning, do best when left by themselves. 
There are no corners in this pond for refuse to lodge in, so it is easy to keep clean. 


581 









The wooden seat covers a tank of fish being shipped to stock some lake or river. Above are 
Pullman berths for their attendants. Both are traveling as comfortably as possible. 1 

ttlllllllllllllllllllllllllllNIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN 


tjiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ||ii||!||||||i|1 

A Nursery for Salmon Babies 


The rows of tanks contain wire “baskets” for salmon eggs, like the one resting against the 
post on the floor. The wooden rims of the baskets project above the top of the troughs, which 
allows the caretaker to handle them and still keep his hands dry. The mesh of the baskets is too 
fine to allow the eggs to pass through, but the fry can wriggle out. Two gallons of eggs, about 
thirty thousands, are poured in at a time. The water is forced upward through the mass of eggs. 


These Fish Ride in a Pullman 


582 
































THE FISHING INDUSTRY 


a shell and sucks the oyster’s soft 
body through. It is a wonder that 
any oysters are left. 

There wouldn’t be if they did not 
have so many babies. One oyster 

Babies and la y S millionS of e gg s > s0 
Babies in small that a laying of 

Oyster Land eggs looks like a pan of 

milky water. An oyster is several 

days or weeks old before you can 

see it. Oysters are four or 

five years old before they are 

big enough to be eaten. An 

oyster is like a tree in one 

thing. It tells its age by the 

rings on the shell. 

The great oyster harvest 
of our country is gathered in 
the winter months in Chesa¬ 
peake Bay, near 
Baltimore. The 
shells are torn 
loose from their 
bed and scooped up with 
dredges, rakes and tongs, 
into boats. Some are sent to 
market in the shells, but most 
of them are “shucked” and 
shipped in iced cans. Lob¬ 
sters, and crabs are caught in 
bucket-like traps that are 
baited with meat or fish. 


Early Days 

& 


WTicn the 
Oyster 
Harvest is 
Gathered 


They are caught mostly along the § 
shores of New England. The little | 
pink shrimps are caught in San | 
Francisco Bay and at other places | 
on the Pacific Coast. Shrimp fishing | 
is done there chiefly by the Chinese. | 

Fishing with Otters and Water Birds 

The Chinese and Japanese are the j 
cleverest fishers! They build fish- | 

Fishing in the tra P S ’ USe netS and hooks ’ ( 

and they train otter and wa- § 

ter birds, called cormorants, | 

to fish for them. Besides j 

they have fish farms and j 

breed carp in ponds. They | 

eat the fins of sharks and | 

many eel-like fish. * ., I 

Wise men say that all the | 

millions of men who make a | 

Protection Iivitl g b Y fishin g I 

of the do not take one § 

Sea Harvest fish G f p ie fop, | 

lions that are in the sea. j 
Still, kinds that are con- | 
stantly hunted may become | 
scarce. Laws have had to be | 
made to protect seals and | 
whales, for these j 
animals, were dis- | 
appearing. Oys- | 
ters, corals, | 
sponges that live | 
in fixed beds, and | 


This is a bone 
fishhook used by 
the Indians. It 
took much patient 
grinding to shape 
it so carefully and 
leave the little pro¬ 
jection at the end, 
which catches in 
the fish’s gills and 
prevents his es¬ 
cape. 

In the lower pic¬ 
ture two boys of 
Colonial days are 
fishing through 
the holes cut 
in the ice! 

T h ey seem 
to be enjoy¬ 
ing the sport 
from the ex¬ 
pression on 
their faces. 













©Hespania Society of America 

Where there is no good harbor in which vessels can lie at anchor after the day’s work, boats 
have to be drawn up high and dry on the beach where high tide cannot float them away or storms 
beat them to pieces. Oxen are pulling this fishing vessel up across the sand. It looks as white as 
snow under the sky of sunny Spain, where this picture was painted by the great Spanish artist 
“Sorolla.” The scene is at Valencia. 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih PICTURED KNOWLEDGE imiiuiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiuiHiiiiiiiiliiiiituiiiiiiiiiiiiiimuiiiig 

1 ... I 

The Fisherman’s Life in Spain 


lobsters that live in limited places, 
can be destroyed by over-fishing, 
just as forests can be cut down or 
burned. Fish die in rivers, lakes, and 
ponds that are poisoned by city sew¬ 
age and mill waste. High dams keep 
salmon, shad, and other fish from go¬ 
ing up stream to lay their eggs. 

So there are fish laws in most 
states, as well as game laws, to keep 
the water pure, to prevent fishing in 
certain seasons, and to build ladders 
up dams for salmon. Wouldn’t 
you like to see a procession of silver 
salmon leaping up ladders? And, 
also, we have fish hatcheries to re¬ 
stock our lakes, streams and oyster 
beds. 

Studying the Fishes 

To breed fish, men had to study. 


They had to find out where a certain 
fish lives, what it eats, when and 
where and how it lays its eggs, what 
the baby fish live on, and where it 
passes its years of childhood. They 
had to know a fish’s friends and 
enemies and all its habits, and then 
experiment to see if it would take 
to other homes. All these things 
are studied in a school at Woods’ 
Hole, on Buzzard’s Bay, Massachu¬ 
setts. It was built by the United 
States Fish Commission. 

The fish eggs are put on wire 
trays into flowing water and kept 

Giving the in motion until they 
Minnows hatch. The eggs and 

a Ride minnows are shipped in 

cars all over the country. Western 
salmon are doing well in eastern 


♦ ♦ 




584 





& 


THE FISHING 

rivers and seas, and Chesapeake 
oysters have taken to new homes in 
California. The lakes have been 
re-stocked with white fish and trout, 
the mountain streams and lakes with 
brook trout and other game fish. 

How Uncle Sam Led the Way 

It is right for us to be proud of do¬ 
ing brave and kind and useful things. 
Ours was one of the first countries 


INDUSTRY 

in the world to protect animals and 
birds. It was the very first to pro¬ 
tect fish, and to put back into our 
lakes and streams and bays, all the 
myriads of water babies that the 
Indians knew. In the waters of 
Maine woods and around the upper 
lakes, you can still fish as Hiawatha 
fished from his birch canoe, with 
his bone hook, and his line of cedar 
bark, and see the pike and sunfish: 


See the yellow perch, the sahwa 
Like a sunbeam in the water. 

See the shazvgashce, the crawfish, 
Like a spider on the bottom. 

On the white sand of the bottom. 
See the monster, Mishe-ftahma 
See the sturgeon, King of Fishes. 


The Three Fishers 

\ 

Three fishers went sailing out into the West, 

Out into the West as the sun went down; 

Each thought on the woman who loved him the best, 

And the children stood watching them out of the town; 

For men must work, and women must weep. 

And there's little to earn, and many to keep, 

Though the harbor bar be moaning. 

Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower, 

And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down; 

They looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower, 

And the night-rack came rolling up ragged and brown. 

But men must work, and women must weep, 

Though storms be sudden, arid waters deep, 

And the harbor bar be moaning. 

Three corpses lay out on the shining sands 
In the morning gleam as the tide went down. 

And the women are weeping and wringing their hands 
For those who will never come home to the town; 

For men must work, and women must weep, 

And the sooner it's over, the sooner to sleep; 

And good-by to the bar and its moaning. 

Charles Kingsley 


*♦ 


IIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 




= © Underwood & Underwood 


We are facing the front of one of the big tapestries for which France has been 
famous since the middle ages. While the man before us is working on the front, 
others can be seen through the warp threads weaving their shuttles back and 
forth. Notice the little mirrors fastened to standards in front of. the tapestry. By 
means of these mirrors the weavers whose hands you see sticking through the 
warp threads are able to follow the pattern as it is worked out on the right side. 































































































































































































































































































TH E WORLD AT ITS WO RK 

WEAVING 


HOW TO READ A RUG 

WORK OF THE 

a , y W EAVERS OF DREAMS 






IWTHEN you were in the baby 
▼ t grade at school, you wove 
mats of colored paper. The strips 
of the warp sheet were joined at 
the top and bottom, making a 
square. You selected a warp 
sheet of color you liked best. 

“What color would look pret¬ 
tiest with that,” you thought. In 
your mind you could see the fin¬ 
ished mat. That is the way with 
everything good and beautiful 
that people make. An artist im¬ 
agines his picture; a musician 
hears his song. Mama thinks out 
your pretty dresses. Maybe you 
dreamed of your mat! You 
could hardly wait to make it! 

You threaded strips of the other 
color into the flat, weaving needle. 
Over and under the warp you 
£- tt l e wove. When all the 

Weavers mats were pasted on 

in School the wa q vou saw that 

* 

some were prettier than yours. 
That taught you a good deal 
about colors and patterns. 

Next you made a loom of a 
slate frame. The warp was of 



cotton cords stretched, close to¬ 
gether, from tacks at the top and 
bottom of the loom. Across these 
you wove woolen threads. With 
a comb you pushed the woof 
threads up until they hid the 
warp. You tied the warp threads 
at the ends, to keep the woof from 
raveling. You had a strong, soft 
rug to put by dolly’s bed. 

How Big People Began to Weave 

In many parts of the world 
people began to weave cloth and 
rugs in this way. First they wove 
mattings of rushes and grasses, 
then homespun blankets of animal 
wool, silk, cotton and flax. The 
best weavers everywhere were the 
shepherd tribes. They could not 
buy anything to work with. They 
had to shear the sheep, goats and 
camels, comb and spin the wool 
into yarn with rude, home made 
cards and spindles, and find dyes 
in plants. Then they had to make 
up their patterns from the beauti¬ 
ful forms and colors about them. 
Let’s “play like” we—we girls— 






587 






































































Uiuiiiuuiiiiiiwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiipiiiiiiiiw^ 


American Hand-Woven Rugs 


Navajo blankets are used for rugs. The soft texture, intricate designs and blended colors of 
Oriental rugs tell their own story of long years of experience in weaving and artistic expression, by 
a people whose civilization is very old. In the same way, the designs and crude colors of Navajo 
blankets are typical of the Indians. The Indians are a people just rising out of barbarism, but 
their blankets are artistic and beautiful. This is an old Navajo Indian Woman weaving one of the 
blankets for which her people are famous. 


for women always did the weaving, 
lived far away and long ago. We 

were Navajo Indian girls 
the World’s in America; or Persian, 
First Turkish, East Indian or 

^Weavers • * i ■ A * wt 

Chinese girls in Asia. We 
lived in tents in a valley, on a plain, 
on a mountain slope, or on a palm- 
shaded oasis in the desert. Every 
day or so the tents were moved. The 
tribes followed the flocks and herds 
to fresh pastures. 

The men and boys and dogs were 
out with the flocks. They had ad¬ 
ventures. The women and girls staid 
with the tents. They cooked food, 
dressed skins, made clothing and 
tent covers. They wove baskets and 
made pottery. Often they plaited in 


and painted colored designs. When 
they began to weave cloth their first 
loom beams were the limbs of trees. 
From stout, low branches warp 
threads were hung and pegged to 
the earth, or weighted at the bottom. 
The next step came when rude 
frames, that could be taken to pieces 
and carried about, were made. 

Colors from Many Sources 

One by one the weavers found 
colors. The Navajos made a red 
dye of the coch-i-neal, a seed-like 
insect that lived on the cactus plant. 
They wove scarlet stripes and fig¬ 
ures on their gray and black blan¬ 
kets. In Asia there was a red 
insect, too, and a red dye was made 


&iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 









THE WEAVING ART 

| of sheep’s blood, and from the mad- 
| der plant. The yellows came from 


the Persian berry, larkspur, saffron 
and turmeric. The husks of walnut 
gave a brown dye. 

You know that you need only yel¬ 
low, red and blue in your paint box, 
although it is 
nice to have 
tubes of black 
and white. By 
mixing the 
three colors 
in dif ferent 
ways, you can 
make many 
tints of all 
colors. The 
weavers learn¬ 
ed to dye light 
and dark and 
to mix their 
dyes. But by 
the cross¬ 
weaving they 
could make 
only stripes 
and simple 
figures. In 
Asia the weav¬ 
ers began to 
pick up a few 
threads of the 
warp at a time 
with a wooden 
shuttle needle. They wrapped the 
woof around the threads. Then 
they picked up the next few. This 
made the khilims, or needle-woven 
blankets. Many colors were used, in 
blocked and figured patterns. But 
the weavers were not satisfied. 

Such beautiful things were all 
around them—the blue sky, the 
green trees and grass, the flaming 
sunset, the rainbow, flowers, birds 
and stars. In the market cities 
where the wool was sold, the Per¬ 


sian shepherds saw walled flower 
gardens, topped with palms, and 
trailing vines. In the Turkish cities 
were churches with gilded domes, 
floors in blocks of colored marbles, 
lanterns, jewels, enamels and gold 
embroideries on silk. The Chinese 

shepherds saw 
temples,paint¬ 
ed pottery, 
lacquer ware 
and needle- 
worked silk. 
Everything in 
Chinese cities 
was decorated 
with dragons, 
bats, birds, 
flowers and 
clouds. 

Weaving the 
Dreams Into 
the Rug 

The women 
went back to 
their lonely 
tents to dream. 
They had no 
books, no pic¬ 
tures, no jew¬ 
els, temples or 
gardens. T o 
work out their 
dreams of 
beauty they 
had only the 
loom, the spindle, the wooden cards 
and combs, shears and the dye pot. 
But with these they made the first, 
the best, the. most beautiful carpets 
in the world. 

Some one in your town has an 
Oriental rug. Oriental means east¬ 
ern. For three thousand years, or 
more, Oriental rugs have been made 
in villages and tents of far eastern 
countries. Look carefully at one. 
The surface is a wool velvet, very 
soft and thick. The pattern is like 


A Turkish Rug Factory 



© Underwood & Underwood 

Most of the workers in this Constantinople rug factory 
are girls. The overseer (probably he is the owner, too) 
sits by the window and watches the work. There are no 
machines, you see. for all the costly, beautiful Oriental 
rugs are made entirely by hand. 


&llllllllllll!linilllllllllllllllllllllllll!Ullll!llllllll!llllllll!l!llllll!IIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIUNIIIUIHIIIUn^ 

5 8 9 


....... 







^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 


painting, embroidery, or jewel work. 
The same pattern, but not the vel¬ 
vet pile, is on the back. If you part 
the pile you will find that each stitch 
is tied on the warp. A strand of 
yarn is wrapped around two warp 
threads, twice. The ends are drawn 


knots to the square inch are often 
seen. Some have nearly one thou¬ 
sand knots. A rapid weaver can tie 
three knots in a minute. Five hours 
to weave one square inch ! d here are 
some rugs that have taken twenty 
years or more to weave ! 


A Brussels and Wilton Carpet Loom 



This is a Jacquard loom for weaving Brussels and Wilton carpets—machine-made rugs of Oriental 
pattern. There is another picture of a Jacquard loom in the Story of Silk. The perforated cards 
that control the design hang at the top of the machine. H 

Stories the Rugs Tell M 

Now people who make a study of | 
rugs can tell where each one came | 
from, although no two are ever just | 
alike. Anyone can remember this | 
much. Persian rugs have flower, | 
even garden patterns with wall bor- | 
ders. Rugs of the Caucasus moun- | 
tain region are in squares, triangles, | 
hexagons, octagons, like tile and | 
jewel work. Turkish and Chinese | 
rugs combine the flower and blocked | 


up between the warps and clipped. 

In making a rug a row of knots 
is tied on. Then the warp threads 
Tj are crossed, and a woof 

slow a > ’ 

Rug is thread is shot across the 

9yfa.de loom. With a comb the 

weaver pushes the knots up solid. 
When several rows are knotted they 
are clipped even with shears. 

On the back of a rug you can 
count the knots in a square inch. 
Rugs with one hundred and fifty 


:: 




590 










Design Artists at Work 


© Underwood & Underwood 

The little Turkish boy in the picture is tired of play and has come in to rest on the pile of soft 
rugs and to watch his father and big brother at work. They are touching up and deepening the 
colors in the design of a rug. 


♦♦ 


59 1 












tp 


I 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE m 


patterns of the other two. 

To the people who made and first 
used them, the rugs were the furni¬ 
ture of the tent. They were beds, 
seats, cushions, door hangings, sad¬ 
dle bags, pictures on the wall, can¬ 
opies over the chief, trappings for 
horses and ele- 
phants and 
camels, gifts to 
lay on church 
altars, prayer 
rugs. Some of 
them were 
made of silk. 

The rugs were 
made and used 
for centuries, 
before western 
people discov¬ 
ered and began 
to buy them. 

How Oriental Rugs 
Got a Temple 

The people 
of Europe had 
learned to 
weave many 
kinds of cloth, 
but on their 
floors they used 
skins and rush 
mats until they 
began to copy the Oriental rug. In 
France some wonderful tapestries 
were made by hand, but they were 
too beautiful and costly to be used 
for anything but wall hanging. Imi¬ 
tation Turkish and Persian carpets 

Imitating Were fi rst made b V ma ‘ 

the Oriental chinery in the factories 
Rugs of Wilton and Axmin- 

ster, England. There was a founda¬ 
tion webbing of linen or jute. Warp 
yarns of worsted were carried along 
on top and woven into the back. 
There had to be as many layers of 
worsted warp as there were colors 


in the pattern. Each color was 
picked up when wanted, by little 
hooks. This was done in the 
Jacquard loom, that weaves the 
figures of silk and linen damask. 
In brussels carpet the stitches were 
woven over wires. When the wires 

were pulled 
out, rows of 
loops were left 
in ribs all over 
the surface. 

I f a velvet 
surface was 
wanted the 
wires were flat, 
or grooved, and 
the loops were 
cut, making a 
pile. For tap-' 
estry brussels 
the warp layer 
was printed be- 
f o r e weaving. 
You can tell a 
“body” from a 
tapestry brus¬ 
sels by turning 
it over. A 
“body” brus¬ 
sels shows the 
many colored 
threads of the 
pattern in straight lines on the back. 
It is heavier and wears much better, 
with so many layers of worsted em¬ 
bedded in the back. The colors are 
better, too, as they are dyed in the 
yarn, and not printed. 

How a Smyrna Rug is Woven 

We have found out another way 
of weaving the velvet pile carpet. 
This is in the Smyrna rug. The pile 
is first woven like a brush on a cord. 
Then the cords are woven into a 
warp. Both sides of a Smyrna rug 
are alike. The ingrain carpet can 


Weaving a Cashmere Shawl 



© Underwood <£ Underwood 

The beautiful designs and texture of Cashmere shawls 
have long been famous. They are made by poor work¬ 
men, like these, on the simplest and most primitive of 
looms. 


ftiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiia^^ 


592 












THE WEAVING ART 


be turned, too. We invented that. 
Only two or three colors can be used 
in the two or three-ply ingrain. A 
cross-woven web is made by each 
color. The webs are interlaced, to 
make the pattern. In a brown and 
tan ingrain, a figure that is brown 
on one side of the carpet is tan on 
the other. 

Choosing Weaves and Patterns 

The nearer our carpets come to 
copying the old Oriental rugs, in 
patterns and colors and texture, the 
better they are. You can ask for 
an Axminster or Wilton carpet in 
the Bokhara pattern. It is a dark 
crimson, with a small octagon de¬ 
sign in many colors. Favorite Per¬ 
sian designs have a center of re¬ 
peated palm leaves, or a floral me¬ 
dallion and wide border, on a plain 
field. Many of the Turkish patterns 
have a point at one end of the cen¬ 
tral pattern. That is the prayer rug. 

All the kinds of carpets that can 
be woven on machine looms are 
made in the United States, in over 
four hundred factories. We make 
body and tapestry brussels, English 
Wiltons and Axminsters, French 


moquettes, Saxony and Scotch car¬ 
pets, “Smyrna” chenille rugs, and 

American “ art ” ™g s in ingrain 

Rugs and weaves. The best of 

Carpets our car p e t s are made of 

good wools, colored with vegetable 
dyes. They wear for years. Their 
colors become softer but do not fade. 

People who have traveled over 
the world, seen everything and 
learned what is good taste in fur- 
q oq j nishings say that if you 

Taste In cannot afford a real Ori- 
Ru 9 s ental carpet, or the best 

machine-made copy of one, you 
should use the simplest art rugs in 
ingrain, or even rag rugs, woven or 
braided by hand. You see, we put 
ourselves into anything we make. 
We put honest materials and work 
into it; our own thought of what is 
good and beautiful, and our love for 
the people who will use it. 

The Eastern rug weavers put all 
these things and many more into the 
wonderful webs they wove on their 
rude looms. You can find history 
and religion, poetry and music, old 
fairy and folk tales, and all the arts 
and crafts and dreams of the East, 
in the Oriental rug. 


One Way in Which Rugs Are Used 




In hot Eastern countries the roof is like our porch—it is the place where the 
family goes at evening to cool off and lest. Here is an Algierian mo er 
her two little girls. They have had their coffee on the rug spread out on *ne 
roof. While the girls play on the rug the mother* sits on the parapet and looks 
out over the city. 


& 




593 










Curious Roots of a Rubber Tree in Ceylon 



© Underwood & Underwood 

This picture is a very striking example of one of the monstrous native rubber trees to be found 
in Ceylon; and—it is very curious and you would hardly believe it—but this is the very same species 
of tree that we have in pots and houses as ornamental plants! It’s a good thing rubber trees don’t 
grow as fast as the bean stalk in “Jack, the Giant Killer,” isn’t it? Otherwise we might wake 
up some morning and find our little rubber plant “all over the place,” as our English friends say. 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiN 


594 

















TH E WORLD AT ITS WO RK 

THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 


>. Ipassa- 


Santa Gaus 
Wonderful Tree 


T HERE is one tree that, if 
hung with its own gifts to 
us, would make a Christmas tree. 

There would be pres- 
Rubber ents for every member 

Christmas q{ the f amily> For 

the baby, new nipples for his milk 
bottle, a ring to cut his pearly 
teeth on, a soft dolly and a toy 
dog that he could put into his 
mouth, cushiony tires for his go- 
cart and a big, round, moon-y 
balloon to surprise his dewy blue 
eyes. 

And Still the Rubber Gifts Come 

Johnny could have a bouncy 
ball, a raincoat, overshoes or 
wading boots, and an eraser to 
rub out his mistakes in arithmetic. 
Eor sister, there would be pretty 
combs and brushes for the toilet 


House Full 
of Rubber 
Things! 


□ □ 


n 


table, an air pillow for the porch 
hammock, and silk elastic stock¬ 
ing supporters. Mama could be 
fitted out with hot water bottles 
and tubing, a rubber sheet for a 
sick bed, mats for careless chil- W 

si - 

dren to wipe their feet on, bath 
sponges, valves and washers for 
her sewing machine, 
rollers for the clothes 
wringer, and gloves 
for such dirty work as blacking 
stoves. There could be a new 
hose for watering the lawn and 
putting out fires, and new tires 
for the bicycle and automobile. 

The tree could be trimmed with 
strings of corks for medicine bot¬ 
tles, buttons and fountain pen 
holders. There would still be plen¬ 
ty of rubber left over to cover elec¬ 
tric wires, and to supply dentists 



















































..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .nmumniimnmiimranninnrainnmniiiimraniinmiiuniiiiiii^ 

I The Rubber World and Rubber Things | 


On brother John’s football the artist has drawn a map of the rubber regions of the world. You 
know what part of the football is rubber and why it is given a place in this picture of rubber things. 
Around it is one of the tires of father’s automobile and there are two red balloons staring at you like 
two big eyes. The telephone is of the kind used in big offices for talking from one part to another. 
Here also are a rubber shoe, a rubber heel, baby’s rattle and rubber dog—I’ll warrant you it squeaks 
and opens that little mouth—a rubber ball, a hose supporter, a rubber glove, a hot water bottle, and 
the rubber disc that will sing for you or play any kind of instrumental music and make a speech— 
whatever it has been “taught” to do. 


| with the silky brown blankets they 
| stretch across the mouth when they 
1 fill teeth. 

ac 

Then There’# the Phone and the 
Phonograph 

| Anything more? 

If anything is missing, such as a 
| black rubber talking machine rec- 
| ord, use the rubber telephone to or- 
| der another. 

It is such a handsome tree that 
| makes us all these gifts! It is sixty 
| feet in height, when full grown, and 
I r, , as straight as an elm, 

I Mr. Rubber branching high in arch¬ 
ing plumes. But the 
bark is a silvery gray, 
between that of the birch and the 
beech. From the ends of the twigs 
the long, shining, rubbery leaves 
droop in clusters of three. So 
thickly do other trees grow all about 
it, in the tropical forest, that you 


T. Santa is 
60 Feet Tall! 


could scarcely see the sprays of 
small white flowers that open in 
August. But in the winter you could 
hear the nut-cases explode like— 
like Christmas crackers! The rub¬ 
ber tree shoots its seeds many yards. 

Where People Milk the Trees 

If you should ever visit the great 
Amazon valley, in South America, 
you could go into the woods and 
watch the native Indians and 
negroes milk the trees. Many trees, 

Rubber v * nes and small plants 
that Grows have a thick, milky sap. 
m Your Snap off a rubbery dan¬ 
delion stem, a head of 
lettuce, or a stalk of milk-weed, and 
see what oozes out. The bark of 
the rubber tree makes so much of 
this thick, creamy juice that it is 
milked as regularly as a cow. This 
juice can be hardened into rubber 
as cow’s milk can be churned into 


596 








♦V 


THE RUBBER 

butter and pressed into cheese. 

How the Aztecs Used Rubber 

We did not know how to do this 
until about seventy years ago. That 
is queer, for Columbus found the 
Indians of Haiti playing with rub¬ 
ber balls. And in Mexico the Az¬ 
tecs showed the Spanish explorers 
how to paint cotton cloth with rub¬ 
ber to make rain coats. The trouble 
that the balls decayed and 


8 


= was 


INDUSTRY 

in the hot sun the raincoats became I 
as sticky as molasses. It was three | 
hundred years before an American | 
Three Hun- inventor discovered how | 
dred Years of to harden, roll and | 
Experiments m0U ld rubber. The | 

whole process of collecting the rub- 1 
ber milk, curing, shipping and mak- j 
ing it into so many different things | 
is very curious and interesting. j 
Would you like to see all these | 
things done? | 


| smelled as bad as spoiled fish, and 

| The Steaming Land of Rubber 1 

1 First you would have to take a for the cargoes of rubber that come 1 
| long journey to some very hot, wet down to be loaded on the ships of 1 
| country. Rubber forests are found many nations anchored in the har- | 
| in the valley of the Congo, in Africa, bor. From these vessels are unloaded jj 


An American rubber plantation in Mexico, showing young plants. 


= to L 


8 


in the East Indies, Mexico and Cen¬ 
tral America. But the finest are in 
N ot a the valley of the Ama- 

PleasantPlace zon and its great tribu¬ 
taries. Exactly on the 
equator, more than one hundred 
inches of rain falls there in a year, 
making it a steaming, flooded jungle. 

Your first stopping place, from 
New York, would be the city of 
Para, at the mouth of this wide river. 
Sixty years ago no town was there, 
and none would be there today but 


machinery, tobacco, canned goods, 
meats, lamp oil, clothing, and every 

Sullies common comfort of life, 

for the for the rubber camps far 

Pulher U p the untamed river. 

Cam fas When they steam away 

they carry rubber in big, greasy, 
football looking lumps, Brazil nuts 
and cocoanuts, cocoa beans for mak¬ 
ing chocolate, and—guess !—cages of 
chattering monkeys, squalling green 
and red parrots and rare tropical 
plants—orchids, palms and ferns. 


♦ ♦ 








PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Rubber Biscuits 


© Underwood <£ Underwood 

For the trip up the river you 

would board a modern steamer with 

chuggy engines and electric lights. 
But for three days you would see no 
town—now and then 

just a few palm-thatched 
huts about a rotting 

wharf. ,On either bank 


Beautiful 
Scenery, 
But Oh 
How Hot! 


you would see 
a wall of trees 
with their feet 
in the water. 
Great vines lace 
them, and bril¬ 
liant blossoms, 
butterflies and 
1 o ng-tailed 
jewels of birds 
twinkle and 
flash on that 
emerald screen. 
In drenching 
rains, glaring 
suns and steam¬ 
ing vapors you 
would make 
your way to 
Manaos. This 


Rubber Plant Showing Leaves and Berries 


small, rich, busy city is the St. Louis 
of the Amazon. Get your map and 
see how many streams flow into the 
Amazon near it. From Manaos, in 
small cargo and supply boats, you 
could go hundreds of miles up the 
Rio Negro, the Madeira, or a half 
dozen other rivers, and to as many 

countries. 


Rubber for¬ 
ests lie along 
every one of 
them. On any 
bank you 
would find lit¬ 
tle camps of 
Negroesand In¬ 
dians, with a 
white manager, 
living in one or 
traveling from 
camp to camp. 

It is in our 
winter, which 
is the dry (or 
less wet) sea¬ 
son on the 
Amazon, 


8 


♦ ♦ 


59s 












:: 


i that the rubber trees 
| are milked. With 
| tiny hatchets a few 
[ inches wide, slanting 
| gashes are made in 
i the bark. The gash- 
| es are made in the 
I herring-bone pattern 
I that mama uses as 
| a fancy sewing 
; stitch. A few are 
| made every day. As 
! high as a man can 
reach on the trunk, 
the tree is girdled 
with rows of these 
gashes every season. 

The wounds are 
made only in the 
bark, and soon heal. 

An ignorant or care¬ 
less person, by cut¬ 
ting into the wood, 
kills the tree. The 
rubber milk is not a 
sap, but a gummy 
fluid made by the 
bark. Below fresh 
gashes, cups are fas¬ 
tened to catch the 
pearly rubber drops 
that trickle down. 

A big tree will 
“give” six ounces 
of milk a day, about enough to fill a 
bottle for a hungry baby. Then the 
last drops dry on the cut, as blood 
dries on a scratch. In the evening 
the milk is collected in pails and 
brought into camp. It is snow-white, 
and has a smell of ammonia. 

How Rubber Milk is Like Cow’s Milk 
Rubber milk is like dairy milk in 
two ways. A thick cream rises to 
the top above a watery fluid; and 
it spoils quickly. It must be 
taken care of at once—be dried and 
smoke-cured. Each workman with 


THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 

Native Woman Tapping a Rubber 
Tree, Ceylon 


a pail of rubber 
juice, builds a very 
smoky fire of palm 
leaves and nuts, un¬ 
der a low clay chim¬ 
ney. He dips a wood¬ 
en paddle into the top 
cream and holds it 
in the smoke. When 
this has hardened, 
the paddle is dipped 
again. A ball of 
greasy, brown rub¬ 
ber that weighs sev¬ 
eral pounds is made. 
This is cut open and 
the paddle pulled 
out. The pure, white 
rubber juice has 
been turned to a 
dirty yellow, smoke- 
streaked, cheesy- 
looking substance. 
It is crude rubber— 
useless in this form. 


Hardening the Rubber 

You could play 
football with a lump 
of crude rubber or 
rub out pencil marks, 
but you could not do 
much else with it. 
Nearly a hundred 
years ago a clever Scotchman melted 
rubber in naphtha and varnished 
cloth with it. That gave us our first 
raincoats called mackintoshes from 
the name of the Scotchman. Twenty 
years later Charles Goodyear, an 
The Sulfihur American, hardened, or 
vulcanized rubber by 
melting it with pow¬ 
dered sulphur. A rubber comb as 
hard as horn, has a great deal of 
sulphur in it. Soft rubbers have 
less sulphur but they have other 
minerals and powders to give them 


in Your 
'Rubber Comb 


a 



599 










$ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦v 


softness, smoothness and color. 

When crude rubber comes to the 
factory, it is put to soak in hot water 
to soften and clean it. It is full of 
sand, leaves, 


kitchen stove, when he accidentally 
slopped a big spoonful of it onto a 
red hot lid. It made a dreadful 
smell, but it did not catch fire. 

When he lifted 


bark scales, 
twigs, rubber- 
tree cockroaches, 
and is greasy 
with pal m-n u t 
smoke. When 
the lumps are as 
soft as putty 
they are chopped 
fine and fed into 
a washing ma¬ 
chine. Heavy, 
hot steel rollers 
soften and flat¬ 
ten the mass that 
runs together 
like stretchy 
taffy, while a 
stream of hot 
water washes out 
the dirt. The 
sticky bits are 
kneaded and 
rolled, and come out in one thick, 
rough sheet like a furry bath mat. 

This is dried for several weeks. 
It is pale in color and you can al¬ 
most see through it. It must then 
be filled, or saturated, with sulphur. 

In some factories the 
rubber is put into a bath 
of melted sulphur to 
soak. But in most cases 
the rubber sheets are warmed and 
softened on hot rollers, and the sul¬ 
phur flour and other minerals are 
sprinkled on and gradually kneaded 
in. But this isn’t all. The sulphur 
must be melted and baked in. 

Mr. Goodyear found that out by 
accident. In one of his experiments 
he was mixing warm rubber and 
powdered sulphur in a kettle on the 


Washing and Grinding the Crude Rubber 



After the gum has soaked in hot water for about 
two weeks it is taken to the grinding machine, 
where it is passed through the grinding rolls. 
These grinding rolls, one of which is shown, 
chew up the rubber, and cold water from the 
pipe washes the dirt out of it. 


it, in a flat cake, 
it hardened. He 
nailed that on a 
wall out of 
doors. Neither 
sun nor frost af¬ 
fected it, and it 
was smooth, 
dense, elastic and 
water tight. He 
just stumbled on 
a great discov¬ 
ery. Today, 
rubber factories 
are fitted with 
washing and 
mixing rolls, 
rolls for rubber- 
coating cloth, 
moulds and die- 
stamps and vul¬ 
canizing ovens. 


Then it is 

Mixed 

With 

Sulphur 


Here’s Our Cooky Cutter Again 

Corks, washers, fruit-jar rings, 
water plugs for bath basins and tubs, 
and many small articles are cut 
from sheet rubber of different thick¬ 
nesses, with die stamps, and are then 
vulcanized in steam-heated cylinder 
ovens. Overshoes are 
made of a number of 
pieces of rubber-coated 
cloth, shaped on lasts, 
and cemented with rubber solution. 
Hot water bottles and hollow rubber 
balls and toys are made in the same 
way. Solid rubber tubing is made 
by forcing very soft rubber through 
a kind of sausage machine. Rubber 
thread, for weaving into elastic rib¬ 
bon, and for making snap bands, is 
cut from many thin sheets of rubber 


How 
Rubber 
Articles 
Are Made 




600 











u 


clamped into 
a solid block. 
Solid rubber 
tires, for bi¬ 
cycles and 
baby buggies, 
are sometimes 
made in the 
sausage ma- 
chine and 
sometimes are 
built up in 
moulds. The 
baby’s rubber 
nipple is made 
by dipping a 
glass mould 
into a rubber 
naphtha solu¬ 
tion. Layer 
after layer is 
formed by 


THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 
Vacuum Dryer Used in Drying Crude Rubber 


a 


© Underwood & Underwood 


drying until the nipple is thick 
enough. 

Large fi re hose are built up of 
layers of canvas, embedded and 
coated with rubber. Some are joined 
in a straight seam, some wrapped 

The Washing Room 


into a mould, i 
and the rim | 
and tread | 
filled out with j 
solid rubber. | 
It is vulcan- | 
ized in great | 
heat under | 
pressure. 

Queer Way of 1 
Making Rub- | 
ber Balls §§ 

One of the | 
most difficult j 
things to make | 
is a hollow | 
rubber ball or | 
toy, filled with | 
air. For a | 
ball the pieces | 
are cut from | 
rubber-coated cloth, in sections, like | 
the peeling of a quartered orange. | 
Inside of one section is pasted a | 
lump of untreated rubber, with no | 
sulphur in it, and the place marked J 
on the outside. Then the sections I 


The foreign substances are here being taken 
rubber comes out of this process in sheet form, 

spirally; some are made on canvas 
tubes, coated inside and out, by that 
sausage machine. Pneu-mat'-ic, or 
air-filled automobile tires are built 
of very hard rubber on canvas, 
around a core. The tube is fitted 


v 

♦♦ 


out of the rubber by washing with water. The 
free from dirt and ready for the Calender Room. 

are cemented together, with a tiny j 
pinch of carbonate of ammonia shut j 
inside. The four-sided, seamy ball | 
is put into a round, iron mould and | 
baked. As soon as it gets hot, puff! | 
that ammonia turns to vapor and § 


601 



















PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiuiiiraininiiraiiuiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiraimniiimiiiHrairaimiiBiiiig 


Heavy Men for Heavy Work 



This picture shows a group of sturdy workmen in the Curing Room. They need all those 
muscles in the Curing Room because the molds are very heavy. 


| tries to get out. It pushes the sides 
| of the ball against the mould, so it 
I Making is stretched and baked 

| the Air a into a perfect globe. 

| Prisoner When the ball comes out 

1 it is very soft. A hollow needle is 
| pushed through the lump of un- 
j treated rubber, and air is forced 
| into the ball to swell it out, tight 
| and smooth. When the needle 
1 is removed the rubber closes like 


wax. The compressed air sealed up | 
in the ball is what makes it bounce. | 
All rubber is air tight. Because it | 
stretches a great deal you can force | 
a lot of air into a toy balloon, a bi- 1 
cycle or automobile tire. Then, if | 
the tiniest hole is punctured, it pops | 
like a pistol. Perhaps those rubber- j 
tree seed-cases are sealed up, full of | 
air. When dry they split and go off | 
with an explosion like a fire cracker. I 


Story of a Rubber Tire 

Speaking or rubber tires, wouldn’t you like to know bow they “grow” on 
the wheels of Father’s car? Well, we will tell you, now, in the best of all 
ways of telling things—by pictures. These big, stout men, looking at us 
here, are only just a part of this story. Their work comes in—as you will 
see—after the tires have been shaped and must be lifted and run into the 
heaters where they are what is called “vulcanized.” This process makes 
them more elastic and durable. Combs, fountain pens and other hard, 
black rubber things, have substances mixed in the rubber before vulcaniz¬ 
ing so that, instead of being elastic, they are very hard. You can do all 
kinds of things with rubber if you know how. 











THE RUBBER INDUSTRY iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiBiiyiMiiiiiiiiw 

The Calender Room | 



The rubber is here rolled out into sheets and passed on to different departments requiring that 
kind of stock. Notice the big rolling mills and the sheets being wound on spools as they come out. 







The Curing Room 



This is the curing room in which you see the pneumatic tires ready to be placed in the heaters 
to be cured. 


lillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll^ 


603 








































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 
Rolling the Rubber into Sheets 


♦> 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIW 


The rubber is now passed through the sheeting rolls. As the rubber sheet passes through the 
rolls, it is laid on cotton cloth in which it is wound. This cloth prevents it from sticking together 
and also keeps it clean. It is then wound on a roll, so that it can be easily unrolled when cutting 
it up into strips for rolling on the arbors. = 

The Pneumatic Tire Room H 


Here we see the pneumatic tires being built by machinery, 
machines than by hand. 


More tires are now made by § 




♦V 


604 


























This is the room in which the tires are finished; that is, brought up to the point where they are 
ready to be cured. 

The Curing Room 


Here is the Curing Room where the tires are being placed in molds. They are then run into the 
heating ovens where they are left a sufficient length of time to cure or vulcanize the rubber. 


THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 
The Finishing Room 


605 







































iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iMuniiiiui™ 


The Tread Laying Room 



This is the room where the tread rubber or that rubber that comes in contact with the surface 
of the streets, is cut out. 

Where the Treads Are Cured 




Ik, 

p 

PPlIpBi 

1 ' 

i j| 

■ s 


The tread, like every other part of the tire, must be cured. Here is where the tread is cured. To 
the left can be seen the large heaters in which the tires are placed. 


W 


606 
















...... 1 .. THE RUBBER INDUSTRY . mm ........... 




Putting on the Treads 


Making the Inner Tubes 


Here are women workers making inner tubes by hand. Much of this work is now being done by 
machine, but owing to the wonderful growth of the automobile industry, it is difficult to obtain 
machine equipment sufficient for factory needs and it is frequently necessary to help out with hand 
labor. 


This shows how the tread rubber is put on the tire. The treads are cut into lengths equal to the 
circumference of the tire and these are made a part of the tire in this room. 




















h 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 
Where Accessories Are Made 




In this room are manufactured what are known as automobile accessories, such as gums, tapes, 
and cements. 

Examining and Inflating Room 


ttllllillllllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllim 

608 


Here is where the tires are finally examined for defects. The workman in front has just pumped 
up a tire and is examining it. 




















































guiiuiiiiHiiHiimuu'iinuHiiuiimuimiiui . wmiimiim .. THE RUBBER INDUSTRY ...mini......... mum 

j' 

I Making Rubber Belts 



*.♦ 

** 


For certain service, rubber belts are superior to leather. Here the cotton duck, impregnated with 
rubber, is folded, covered and made into belts varying from two inches to six feet in width. 


Vulcanizing the Belts 



Here the belts are being vulcanized in hydraulic presses consisting of an upper and lower steam 
chamber. These chambers close under a pressure of 2,500 pounds to the square inch. As the 
belting comes out of the press, you will notice, it is rolled on spools. 


... ...ilium.«.. 


609 
























THE HOW AND WHY 
O F COMMON THING S 

ORIGIN OF PENS 


. ; 

How Birds Helped Us Write 





• •? ' i 

• 

>.<*:■ ••iUU i; 
mmi 

V ■ 


If you should ever visit the Essex Hall Museum in Salem, Mass., you would see, 
among the many interesting relics of our forefathers preserved there, this bundle of quills. 
Notice that the quills have not been sharpened. You know how much time it takes to 
keep your pencils sharpened in school. Now, suppose you had to keep sharpening yoUr 
pen over and over in the same way, with a “pen knife,” as they used to do in the old 
school days. 


L INCOLN liked to study the 
J dictionary. In the common¬ 
est words there he found history 
and romance. In French, a pen 
is called plume; in German, fed- 
er. Pen is from the Latin penna, 
feather. As a boy, 
Lincoln made his own 

of "The r .1 

Feather ” P ens fr0m the Wing- 

feathers, or quills of 
wild turkeys and geese. All sorts 
of things have been used to write 
with—bodkins of bone, ivory and 
bronze; bamboo, stiff grasses, 
reeds, quills of eagles and swan, 
thin horn and tortoise shell. As 
all these pens lost their points 
very fast, about a hundred years 
ago the “nibs” began to be plated 
with gold, and tipped with 
diamonds and rubies. The first 
good steel pens were made about 
1840. It took a half century of 
invention to work out the idea of 
making a steel pen as flexible as 
a quill by splitting the point, and 
making a round hole at the 
shoulder. When your grandpapa 
was a boy most children used the 
copper colored bronze pens of 



Joseph Gillot. One—just one—of 
the beautiful shining steel pens 
that school boards often furnish 
free to pupils, once cost five shill¬ 
ings each. To make a pen so per¬ 
fect and so cheap is one of the 

Nearly wonders of our day. 

Fifty Things The finest sheet steel 
Done to made of Swedish iron 

a Pen is used, and the little 

writing implement goes through 
nearly fifty processes before it is 
finished. It is cut from the sheet 
in strips, rolled, heated, pickled 
in acid, clipped, pointed, stamped, 
split or “nibbed,” heated in oil, 
polished and ground. In Camden, 
Meriden and Philadelphia we 
make two hundred and fifty mil¬ 
lion pens a year, and then buy 
more from England and Ger¬ 
many. No other country makes 
as many or as good gold and 
“fountain” pens as we do. Gold 
pens are now tipped with a hard 
metal — iridium. The fountain 
pen, with the self-filling barrel 
and even flow of today, was made 
only after a century of experi¬ 
menting. 














6lO 


























HOW BIRDS HELPED US WRITE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiii^ 



Here you see the rubber “Biscuit,” brick of gold and Bottle of Iridium used for hardening the pen 
points. Iridium comes from the Ural mountains in Asiatic Russia and costs about $1,500 per pound. 




How Fountain 



This workman is covering the barrels of fountain pens with soap stone to prevent their sticking 
together when put into the oven shown in the next picture. 











iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINIIIIIIM^ 

c 

Baking and Polishing 




In the upper picture the pen barrels are going into the oven. In the two lower they are being- 

polished after baking. The rubber of 
which pen barrels are made is mixed 
with sulphur before baking. This is 
called “vulcanizing” and makes the rub¬ 
ber hard and black. The barrels are 
polished, first with steel shavings and 
next on what is called the “buffing 
wheel.” The polishing, as you see, is 
done very much as you polish your 


shoes, except that the brush is on a wheel. This brush is covered with rouge, a kind of red powder 
Rouge is also used for polishing glass, metal and gems. 













The earth’s great “Stone Book” tells of the period in the earth’s history when coal was 
formed; how the material for rocks is made and laid in the bottom of the sea and about the differ¬ 
ent periods in which the successive forms of life appeared. The earth historians—the geologists— 
divided its history into twenty-one periods. The oldest rocks were made some 80,000,000 years 
ago! The first form of life to appear was that of the spiral-shelled creatures. Then came shelled 
creatures like our snails; next the trilobites, with queer horns and spines. In the coal period are 
found monsters somewhat like our crocodiles, and after these, dinosaurs, whose form was some¬ 
thing of a cross between the kangaroo and the crocodile: after the dinosaur, a fish-like creature 
with a long upper jaw and fins. In the newest formations are found the bones of the elephant¬ 
like mastodons. 







TH E_ WORLD AT ITS WO PK 

COAL 


The Long Strange Story 
of a Bucket of Coal 


This is how the forests looked in 
the days when nature started to 
make our coal. “How was this pic¬ 
ture taken?” you ask; “they didn’t 
have cameras in those days, and 
there was nobody to operate them if 


there had been.” It was drawn from 
information geologists got from such 
things as the leaf imprint in the 
“dusky diamond,” shown on another 
page. 


“fyjSKY D 1 A- 
M O N D S," 
what an odd name 
to call coal! Then how 
do you like “enchant¬ 
ed forests” or “buried sunshine?” 

Those names puzzle you still 
more. Diamonds, coal and trees 
are so very unlike each other, you 
think. And how could sunshine 
be caught and buried? 

Well, let’s see. Many things 
that seem unlike are really the 
same, or at least near relations. 


Water, you know, is 
sometimes steam, or 
snow or ice. The fire 
on the hearth and 
beams from the sun 
both give light and heat. Trees 
could n-ot turn green and grow 
without sunshine. They soak it 
in through every leaf-pore, and 
store it away in roots, trunk and 
bark. When burned, wood gives 
all that stored up heat and light 
out again. Coal, too, makes a 
bright, hot fire. If made hot 



















































t'#i!iii!i!iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiniliiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiHiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiig 


| enough, a diamond burns with an 
| electric blue flame, with no smoke. 

Diamonds, coal and wood have 
| carbon in them. Carbon burns only 
| in air. It does not melt in water. 
| The diamond is a carbon crystal, as 
| a snow-flake is a water crystal. Coal 
| is only six to nine-tenths carbon. It 
| has water, sulphur, phosphorus and 
| other impurities in it. Only the dry 
| fibers of wood are carbon. When 
| coal is roasted in an air-tight kiln, 
| many impurities are driven out in 
| gases, leaving the carbon and some 
| minerals behind, as coke. Wood 
| roasts to charcoal. Animal bones 
| roast to charcoal, too. There is car- 
| bon in all woody fibers and in animal 
| bones. Graphite, or the lead in 
| "lead” pencils is a carbon. So is jet. 
| Indeed, your jet buckle is just a kind 
| of coal. 

Under a microscope you can see 
| great differences in the carbons. 
| The diamond glitters. Graphite 
| sparkles, as a snow-bank sparkles, 
| from many tiny crystals pressed to- 
| gether. Jet and hard coal shine. 
| In charcoal the wood fibres lie in 
| loose bundles. Coke is a sponge- 
| like mass of fibres and holes. 

King Coal’s Information Bureau 

Soft coal splits like wood. Split 
| a block of cannel coal. On a fresh 
| surface you can find leaf stems and 
| scales, mosses and fern-like leaves. 
| It is as hard to find a perfect leaf 
| on coal as to find a perfect, six- 
| pointed snow-flake. In being turned 
| into coal, plants were crushed to 
| powder and then pressed to stone. 
| How? 

Well, thousands of years ago, 
| there were great forests where the 
| coal fields lie today. Tree ferns, 
| palms and undergrowth were 
| crowded together, on still, hot 


Part of the Enchanted Forest 



“Split a block of cannel coal. On a fresh sur¬ 
face you can find leaf stems and scales, mosses and 
fern-like leaves.” 


MOUNT CARMEL COLLIERY 
STUARTVILLE DIAMOND DRILL BORE HOLE 



23'6'Sha/t 


21 TSandshttf arul Sandstone 


31' 


MAMMOTH BED 

{ Top Member/ 


15 2‘Gray rock 

2' O’fine CnnolomrnUe 
3’ Spar 

8' 2" Sandslate and Sandstone 

1"Slate 

COAL bco 

r-sbur 

ft O’ Sandstone 
/ SSUu 
/ 

ct 2' <Qtuui*UUr 
<1' O’J’lm gray ftxk 

2 ' S’ tfuarti *j*d Uultf nuMduf* 

V ?Fin*gray rvtir 
y b"Slat*, 

H>tl' Sandstone. 


*,♦ 
• « 




614 


























«> 


LEAVES IN THE LIFE OF 


OLD KING COAL liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 



Insects of the Coal Age 

Imagine the “still, hot swamps” where “tree ferns, palms and undergrowth were crowded to¬ 
gether,” teeming with these huge creatures. What a buzzing they made! The dragon-fly in the 
air is like the one found in a French coal bed. Its wings were 2 feet across. Below are a mayfly 
and cockroach of that period. 





....iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii .... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiuini^^ 


swamps. The swamps lay around 
the mouths of rivers. Drift-wood 
was floated down 
and piled above 
the roots. Suddenly 
the swamps sank 
into the ocean. With 
an earthquake the 
land dropped. One 
moment the green 
forest waved in the 
sun. The next mo¬ 
ment the trees were 
crushed on their 
roots. No’light or 
air reached them. Everything in 
them that would decay, or dis¬ 
solve in water, was washed out. 
Then water was squeezed out. Then 
the carbon was pressed into coal. 
Sand and mud covered the coal and 
were pressed into sandstone, clay 
and slate. Sometimes the coal lay 

so long under the ocean that the 

shells and bones of sea animals were 
pressed into limestone above it. 

But the land was lifted, at last, 
by another earthquake. ..Forests 
grew again and sank. In some fields 
there are six veins of coal with stone 
on each. By this coal map of our 
country you can see just where for¬ 
ests once grew. 

Where Our Largest Coal Fields Lie 

The largest of our coal regions 
covers the whole western slope of 
the Allegheny mountains. Two 
large fields are just above where the 
Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri Riv¬ 
ers flow together. The Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico came up to the Ohio River in the 
coal age, and washed the base of 
the mountains. The mountains were 
lower than they are today. You can 
see how narrow a ridge was, at one 
time, above the sea, by the small 
coal field in Eastern Pennsylvania. 
On the Susquehanna River is the 


largest and finest field of anthracite 
coal in the world. This river flows 

into Chesapeake 
Bay, a large arm of 
the sea. In the coal 
age this bay was 
much larger. 

Most coal mines 
lie deep, buried un¬ 
der rock, clay, 
gravel, sand and 
black soil. But 
sometimes coal is 
found on the sur¬ 
face. You see, the 
earth is lifted, dropped and folded 
unevenly. It tips up rock layers and 
cracks them, so coal seams lie at 
all sorts of angles. In some places 
they were laid bare by rivers that 
cut their way through soil and rock. 
On streams in our coal regions you 
can see black holes where coal mines 
have been opened from hilly banks. 
But most coal mines are entered 
through up-and-down tunnels, or 
elevator shafts. The mine is found 
by boring. Mining engineers can 
tell by what comes from the hole, 
just how thick a coal seam is. Very 
thin layers cannot be worked. We 
have some coal seams sixty feet 
thick. Just imagine the forests that 
made them! It took four feet of 
wood to make one of coal. 

A coal mine shaft may be fifteen 
feet across and a hundred or more 
feet deep. It is lined with iron or 
timbers to keep out water. Men, 
tools, coal cars and mules, are car¬ 
ried up and down in elevator cages. 
Around the bottom of the shaft are 
brick and stone lined rooms for the 
ventilating pumps, tools, blasting 
powders, coal trucks and stables. 

Down in a Coal Mine 

Would you like to visit a coal 
mine? All aboard! You have to 


UNITED STATES 


GREAT BRITAIN 


\ GERMANY 


mm AUSTRIA -HUNGARY 
mm TRANCE 

RELATIVE RANK OF 

I ftL/So/A 

JAPAN COAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES 

mam ALL OTHER COUNTRIES 


A 

CENTURY 

OF COAL. PRODUCTION 


IN EACH TEN YEAR PER'OC THERE 
HAS BEEN MINEO AS MUCH 
AS THE ENTIRE PREVIOUS 
PRODUCTION 


( I8I6-r 0 1825. 331.356 tom* t?000 tbs.j 

2 1826 to I8SS 4 168 >49 ton s 
S 836r 0 i845, 23.177 637 ton* 

' 1046 to 1855, 83.417.825 tons 
1856 to 1865 173.795 014 TONS 

I06^to 1875. 419.425.104 tons 
^1^^^^8^5^847.760.319 tons 

__ 1896 to 1895 , 1 . 586 , 098.6 41 tons 

__ 1896 to 1905 , 2 , 832,599 452 ~~ ~~ ~ ~ — — _ _ 

8 v ears 1906 TO I 9 I 3 (I9l 3 EST imateo) 3,884 000.000 tons 


& 


a 


616 











f LEAVES in the life of old king coal II I I mil,a 



The Dominions of King Coal 

The black spots show the location of coal fields in the United States. The richest beds are in the 
Allegheny region. 

The diagram below shows how twisted and tilted the veins of coal sometimes are. Perpendicular 
shafts are not always best; sometimes an oblique shaft is sunk following the line of the strata of coal. 



......in...............mill.. 


617 

















































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

I The Coal of the Future I 



Lignite is a low form of coal, between peat and bituminous. It is of comparatively recent origin 
and has not been considered of much value in the past. But even our vast coal fields will some day 
be exhausted and then lignite will have its turn. There are over 500,000,000 tons of it in North 
Dakota alone. 



A government scientist recently discovered a 
13-foot vein of anthracite or hard coal on govern¬ 
ment land in Colorado. There are only a few 
places outside of Pennsylvania where this kind of 
coal is found. 



climb into a cage at the top of the 
shaft. You had better wear your 
oldest clothes. You go down with 
the miners who are black with coal 
dust. They are so black they look 
like negroes. 

Down you go, just as you go in 
the elevator of a tall building. You 
go into the blackest night. At the 
bottom there are electric lights in 
the engine room, tool rooms, and 
stables. The miners stop for picks, 
wedges, hammers, and drills. A 
safety lamp is fitted to each man’s 
cap. The lamps have chimneys of 
wire gauze that cover the flame. 
The flame cannot get through the 
gauze, nor enough gas-laden air get 
in to cause an explosion. The men 
are not allowed to smoke pipes or 
to carry matches. The coal trucks 
are pulled by mules or electric 
motors. Locomotives cannot be used 
in coal mines, on account of the gas. 
Just smell it! It smells like a fur¬ 
nace when you put fresh coals on 
the fire. The ventilating fans pump 
fresh air into the mine and blow as 
much bad air out as thev can. 


||||||!I||||||!||||!II>!|||||||||||||||||||||||||||I|||||I!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIH 


:;n 


61S 







g iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii the MINER AND HIS WORK iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiii^ 

1 A Children's Coal Mine I 



Fourth-grade children in the Benton School, Columbia, Missouri, modelled this mine. They did 
it while they were studying about coal mines in geography. See the track, with the wooden car on 
it, leading into the entrance to the mine. It will really run into it, too, and can be pulled back. 


= The Tunnels in the 
1 Mine 



From the bot¬ 
tom of the shaft, 
galleries or tun¬ 
nels run out along 
the coal seam. 
The mine is like a 
city of narrow, 
black streets with¬ 
out houses. A 
railroad track runs 
through every 
tunnel. Great 
rooms are cut out 
of the coal on 
either side. Pil¬ 
lars of coal have 
been left, and tim¬ 
bers put in to hold 
up the stone roof. 
You can see them, 


at every turn, 
mering in 
caverns, 
sound is 




This statue, by Charles J. Mulligan, shows us 
the sad side of a miner’s life. When the miner 
says goodbye to his wife and children every 
morning he knows that one of the terrible acci¬ 
dents that happen daily, in spite of the great¬ 
est precautions, may befall him. That is what 
■nakes him cling so closely and tenderly to his 
little girl. And the child, little as she is, knows 
that sometimes other little girls’ papas don t 
come back from that great deep hole. 


from the walls— | 
the trotting of | 
iron-shod mules, | 
the rumble of the j 
trucks, the clang j 
of picks and ham- | 
iners, the shovel- | 
ing of coal. . You | 
jump at what | 
sounds like a far- | 
away cannon shot. j 
Tons of coal are | 
brought down by | 
blasting. | 


A Dark and Dan- n 
gerous Place 

Such a dark and | 
dangerous city! | 
The drip, drip j 
of water from a | 
roof makes one | 
nervous. Some- j 
times an u n - | 
derground stream | 
breaks in and | 
floods a mine. 1 


»,* 

♦♦ 


:• 


619 



When Fire and Water Meet 






• .Jt' 


Many mines have a corps of fire fighters at work constantly, extinguishing the fires which occur 
so easily in their inflammable product. Sometimes a fire gets beyond control and burns in one part of 
the mine for years while miners continue to work other parts of it regardless of the roaring furnace 
so near them. This is the diagram of an English mine in which such a fire was barricaded with 
thick brick walls. A little river in time of flood, broke through the upper gallery of the mine and 
reached the burning area. 


:: 


620 







Water Sometimes Destroys Mines 


The steam formed when the water came in contact with the fire shot a stream of water up the 
shaft of the mine like a waterspout. With a rush and a roar, winding tackle, timbers and machinery 
were carried three hundred feet in the air. The fire was put out but the mine was destroyed. 


62 1 
















































giiiiiiittniiiiiiiiiiiiiii... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiii* 

The Men Who Dig the Buried Forests 


Thousands of men are emoloved in American and European coal mines. These are English min 
ers just after the closing whistle has blown. 



byways of your 
town. In a big 
mine there are 
several ways out. 
If made prison¬ 
ers, miners know 
their mates and 
employers will 
try to dig them 
out. They knock 
on the wall with 
p i c k s to tell 
where they are. 
plan of a mine But sometimes they are found too 
the streets and late. Their prison has filled with 


The engine is pumping water out of the 
mine. Sometimes these pumps have to be 
kept running constantly. 


Sometimes the 
coal and timber 
supports give 
way, and a gal¬ 
lery of men are 
walled in with 
rock and coal. 
Explosions of 
gas and coal dust 
choke men to 
death, or turn a 
mine into a roar¬ 
ing furnace. Ev¬ 
ery miner knows the 
as well as you know 



After the Day’s Work 


These miners are going back from work in the cars made for that purpose They spend every 
day, week after week, underground and their work is usually dangerous as well as dirty. 





MAKING THE MINES SAFER iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiim 


First Aid” Work in the Mine 


Since the United States Bureau 
of Mines showed them the way, 
many mining companies have 
organized corps of rescue work¬ 
ers among their miners, and have 
fitted them out with the neces¬ 
sary equipment. A course in 
first aid and rescue work, includ¬ 
ing instruction in how to use an 
oxygen helmet, is given the min¬ 
ers making up these companies. 
In the picture at the top of the 
page you see two of them bind¬ 
ing up the broken arm of a 
wounded comrade. 

People used to think that 
mine explosions were never 
caused by coal dust alone, but 
that gas had to be present, too, 
but the experiments of the Unit¬ 
ed States Bureau of Mines has 
proved that this does happen. 
Coal dust was put in a steel cyl¬ 


Collecti 


Marsh Gas 

- . W 


inder six feet in diameter and 
one hundred feet long, like the 
one in the picture at the bottom 
of the page. A shot was fired 
into it by a cannon to provide a 
shock like those that occur daily 
in a mine where blasting is go¬ 
ing on. The coal dust exploded 
with great violence. The picture 
here shows the tube when an ex¬ 
plosion is taking place. When 
there are other things mixed with 
the coal dust, such as rock dust 
and ashes, explosions do not oc¬ 
cur. 


As a result of the knowledge 
gained by this experiment rock 
dust, ashes and common road¬ 
way dust are spread on the floor 
of the tunnels and this is kept 
stirred up by the traffic back and 
forth to the elevator shafts. 


The deadly marsh gas that 
occurs along with other 
gases in mines is also found 
rising in bubbles from 
swamps and pools of stag¬ 
nant water. The small pic¬ 
ture shows how some was 
collected for experiments. 


One of the Government’s Experiments with Coal Dust 


62 


'J 








...... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ....*5 


See the cramped position in which miners must work. The heavy posts are props tor the coal 
walls. 

The lower picture shows an electric trolley line for coal. It is operated by the lever attached 
to the trolley connection on the first car. How low the ceiling is—a tall man could barely stand up 
straight. 


In the Underground Dungeons of King Coal 


624 











luiiiiiiiiniiiiiniiTiiiiiiiinininiiniiiiiinTTniiiiinniiuiiiuinniniiTnnTnifiiiiiii UP FROM THE MINE . mi.illiliiiiliiiiiliiiiiiliii^ 

All Aboard for Up the Shaft! 1 


»,♦ 


© Brown Brothers 


Ready to Come § 
Up from the Mine § 


The coal trolley j§ 
ends here and the car §j 
loads of coal are hoist- M 
ed up the shaft on j| 
this elevator which is If 
run by the big chains §f 
which you see at the || 
sides. H 


Through the 
Breakers Next 


In the upper half of 1 
this picture are the H 
breaker buildings of a §§ 
coal mine. They con- M 
tain crushing m a- 1 
chinery, like that f§ 
which is diagrammed 1 
on the following page, M 
and breaker runs §j 
where the slag and j| 
rock are removed from §| 
the coal. In the lower f§ 
half is a model coal j| 
breaker in the Mining || 
Museum at the Penn- M 
sylvania College of M. 
Mines. With this kind M 
of a breaker no work- E 
men are needed. H 















t^llllllllllll!lllllll!lll!ll!l!!llllllllllll!ll!llllllllll!ll!llllli!ll!!ll!llllillll||||li PICTURED KNOWLEDGE lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll^ 

The Crushing Machine at the Top of a Breaker 



Diagram of a Breaker’s Picking Table 



626 








































































































































































































































































































THE VENTILATING SYSTEM 
Where Fresh Air is Precious 


♦♦♦ 
♦ ♦ 



A” Stump, B -Breast C -Monkey , cl - f/ead/ng 
E - \A/or/</nj fcrce of fareosf 
> Direction of cr/'/- c urren fs 


i 


A good supply of pure air is absolutely necessary in the gas-laden passages of a mine. And the 
air must be kept moving to prevent explosive gases from collecting. A strong current of air, 
almost a wind, is continually blowing through a mine. The chambers are connected in such a way 
that with the help of doors or gates, the air current can be Sent in the direction most needed. The 
diagram above shows you the route an air current takes through the mine. The vein of coal is 
slanting, so none of the passages are horizontal. The working face, E, is higher than A. The 
miners are working at E loosening the coal and the force of gravity makes it flow down the passages. 

these some are best 
for making steam, 
or gas, or coke, for 
smelting iron in 
blast furnaces. A 
penny pipe fitted 
with clay into a 
kettle filled with 
coal dust set over a 
fire will make gas. 
There are gas 
works in every city, 
and long rows of 
coke ovens near big 
steel and iron 
works. If we had 


deadly gas. 

Anthracite coal 
is very hard and 
clean. It is nine- 
tenths carbon, so it 
makes a hot fire, 
with little smoke. 

Did you ever won¬ 
der why it came in 
certain sizes'? It 
comes from a mine 
in big blocks that 
have to be broken. 

A coal-breaker is a 
crushing mill. As 
the broken coal 
falls, it is sorted by 
screens. Then as it slides down 
chutes, boys pick out bits of stone 
and slate. 

The soft coals break up them¬ 
selves. Some kinds go to dust. Of 


Did you ever wonder why coal came 
in certain sizes? It comes from a mine 
in big blocks that have to be broken. 
A coal-breaker is a crushing mill. The 
upper picture on the oppsite page 
shows you diagrams of the rollers that 
break the coal. The coal is hoisted to 
the top of a breaker, a truck load at a 
time, and thrown into a slanting bin 
above the machine. As the coal runs 
down between these rollers it is crushed 
by the steel teeth. The dotted lines on 
the left hand diagram represent the 
parts covered up by the outer casing. 
One roller is turned, you see, by the 
band pulley around the smaller wheel. 
An arrangement of interlocking cogs at 
the bottom of both rollers turns the 
other over. The other diagram shows 
how a roller looks from the outside. 

As the broken coal falls it is sorted 
by screens. Then as it slides down 
chutes boys pick out bits of stone and 
slate. The coal runs down the chutes 
of the breaker picking tables on the op¬ 
posite page because they are tilted 
downward. 


to use wood for 
smelting iron, iron and steel would 
be so dear that we could use very 
little of it. Without coal, 
factories would stop, streets 
w o u1d be dark, houses cold. 


♦ ♦ 


♦ ♦ 








... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. limn.... 


“Eating On the Run” 



This steamer was hungry. She had eaten up all the coal in her bins but the many busy people 
on board could not wait for her to stop so she is “coaling up” from the coal steamer nearby while 
both are traveling at the rate of ten miles an hour. 



You know how many ashes are try to let the m go up the chimney, 
made by a coal fire. An ash is a But they are not as dangerous as 
mineral. Trees have lime and iron a coal-gas that you cannot smell 
and other miner- D 0 A ^ ^ . 

Boy ocouts Delivering Coal 
to the Poor 


als in them. Some 
of these were 
washed out when 
wood was turned 
into coal. But sul¬ 
phur and phos- 
p h o r u s were 
washed in. And 
sand and clay 
were pressed into 
the cracks. When 
heated, the sand 
and clay bake into 
glassy “clinkers” 
that you have to 
shake and push 
out of grates. The 
sulphur and phos¬ 
phorus make those 
bad smelling gas¬ 
es that come from 
a coal fire. They 
are so unpleasant 
that you always 


The Boy Scouts of Chicago have decided 
to use their organization for helping the 
poor. They investigate cases of suffering 
and poverty, report to their scoutmaster, 
then buy coal and deliver it where it is 
most needed. 


at all. All of the 
carbons give off a 
poisonous, carbon¬ 
ic acid gas. They 
give it off all the 
time, when ex¬ 
posed to the air. 
This is the deadly 
gas that collects in 
coal mines. Coal, 
coke, and charcoal 
give off this gas 
most when burn¬ 
ing. The oxygen 
in the air helps it 
burn up. An air¬ 
tight stove or fur¬ 
nace, or a pan 
of charcoal, can 
make enough of 
this gas to kill 
a sleeping family. 
It is not safe to 
shut all the win¬ 
dows in the win- 


ftllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllM 


628 





















HOW THE COAL GETS TO MARKET 

From Mine to Grate 


This picture shows us a huge machine for loading coal into freight cars. The cars loaded with 
coal are run into sheds on tracks like the one in the inserted illustration. The coal is dumped 
from the cars into bins along the side of the track. These bins have slanting bottoms which allow 
the coal to run down and out into waiting wagons. 


A Summer Home for Coal 


There are great round piles of coal in these round sheds. It is unloaded from ships by machinery 
into these storehouses in the spring, then reloaded in the same way in the fall when it is needed. 


»,« 

** 


629 


















^iiiii(iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii[ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ihiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 

Beginning a New Mine 



This big iron frame marks the place where the shaft of the new mine will be. The lower edge 
of it is sharp and sinks into the soil easily. The upper part is trough-like as you see and will be 
filled with concrete. The workmen will dig out the soil under the frame and the weight of the 
concrete will make it sink downward. More concrete will be added as the frame gets lower until 
it strikes bed rock. The concrete will then form the walls of the shaft and the frame will be the 
foundation. 


| ter when fires are burning. 

In pine-like trees that were made 
| into coal, there were oils, gummy 
| resins, and pitches that would not 
| mix with the sea-water. They were 
| locked up in the coal. You will be 
| glad of that when you learn that it 
| is these things that make the beau- 
| tiful colors and leaping flames. It 
I is cannel and other resinous or “bi¬ 


tuminous” soft coals that make such | 
cheerful grate fires. Smoky crim- | 
son, orange, and gold tongues of j 
fire dart out. They climb the chim- j 
ney to catch the gases and carbon | 
dust before they can escape. 

Beside a grate fire is the pleasant- | 
est place ever a child can sit in | 
mother’s lap to be rocked. The | 
flames are fire fairies playing tag. | 



Anthracite coal is so dirty and contains so much slate and stone that dealers formerly sold 2,240 
pounds for a ton, the extra 240 pounds being counted as waste. Now the coal is washed to remove 
the dirt. In the picture water is being sprayed over a moving channel of coal. After this the coal 
is stirred in a large vat where the heavier impurities sink to the bottom while the coal passes on and 
is dried for market. 



♦<* 










In the early days of coal mining the small, broken bits of coal mixed with waste were thought 
to be useless so they were collected in great heaps called culm piles. Many of these were washed 
away, scattered or dumped into streams. Now dipper dredges like the one in the picture bring up 
this coal from river beds. It is put into steel buckets which are loaded on flat bottomed scows and 
towed ashore. There it is sorted and shipped to market. 


There are blue and violet grottoes 
in the hollows, and creeping flickers. 
You can see pictures and stories. 
Why, the flames might be that long 
buried forest of ferns and palms, 
flashing up to the sun! The flickers 
are wood and water nymphs danc¬ 
ing along the glittering aisles of 
swamp. But mischievous gnomes 


and goblins are hiding in the rock 
caves of the ocean to drag the forest 
under the waves. Such a murmur¬ 
ing of leaves ! Such lovely, drowsy 
music of waves on the shore. It’s 
mama singing a lullaby. 

At bed time, by the fire, one little 
girl used to say: “My mama has 
such sweet, sleepy tunes in her voice. 


How Uncle Sam Saves Himself $4,000,000 a Year on His Coal Bill 


This man is a government expert testing coal for its heat producing qualities. He is looking 
through a magnifying glass at a tiny scale which is registering the heat units produced by the coal 
which is being burned in the enclosed vessel. These tests are made before buying the great quan¬ 
tities of coal needed by the government for the navy and other departments. By buying the best 
coal, that is, the kind that produces the most heat, four million dollars a year is saved by the gov¬ 
ernment. 


Placer Coal Mining 


HOW THE COAL GETS TO MARKET 


*,« 

& 


631 


















Three Woolly Bottle Babies 



Baby lambs usually come in the spring when trees and flowers are beginning to blossom. These 
babies’ mothers refused to nurse them so they have to be fed milk from a bottle just like baby 
boys and girls. Wouldn’t you like to be the little girl in the picture so you could pet one of the 
nice, woolly, little creatures? 














D TD you ever see a black 
sheep? Perhaps you thought 
that the old Mother Goose rhyme 
was a joke like the story of the 
whale that Peter tried to catch in 
his mother’s pail. Most sheep are 
white. Some are the silvery gray 
or fawn color of “natural wool” 
underwear. But in England 
there is a breed of sheep as black 
as the Tar Baby of Uncle Remus. 
They are no larger than other 
sheep; that is they are about as 
big as a good sized dog. It would 
take a whole flock of them to fill 
three bags with wool. 

Think, then, how many sheep 
there must be, so that we can have 
all the woolen clothing, blankets 
and carpets that we need! And 
—just think—it takes a sheep a 
year to grow one fleece. To 
make’a living a sheep farmer must 


Sheep Never 
Complain 
of the Board 

they eat. 



have hundreds and even thou¬ 
sands of animals, and miles of 
land for them. But sheep do not 
need as much food as 
cattle, and are not 
“fussy” about what 
They grow fat on the 
scanty, brown grass of South 
America, South Africa and Aus¬ 
tralia. They feed contentedly 
on the stony mountain slopes of 
Scotland, Mexico, Canada, and 
our own New England and Rocky 
Mountain states. In smaller 
flocks they are kept on the poor¬ 
est pastures, on countless farms 
all over our country and Europe. 

Life on a Sheep Ranch 

A mountain sheep country is 
often beautiful, with its snow¬ 
capped peaks, wooded slopes and 
deep, rocky valleys. But it is 


























































^liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED 

| lonely. A ranch may be fifty miles 
| from a railway station, ten miles 
| from a neighbor. So it has to be 
| a small village in itself. Besides 
| the owner's house, and barns for 


KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini 1 ^ 

go up the mountains in the summer, j 
but come down to the valley in the j 
winter. They eat everything down | 
to the roots, even to young seedlings | 
in the woods, so they are not al- [ 



The Shepherd and His Dog 

The shepherd stands leaning on his stick with one faithful helper by his side. He is watching his 
other dog round up a stray sheep and get it back with the flock. 


| horses, there must be a foreman’s 
| house and office, a store, a black- 
| smith’s shop, houses for the herders, 
| a washing pen and a clipping and 
| baling shed. There is a teacher for 
| the children. Little folks have ponies 
| to ride. The owner has a telephone 
| to the nearest town. 

If sheep are not watched they 
| wander from the flock. In storms 
| they drift into low places and are 
I When the snowed under. Some- 

| Poor Sheefi times a frightened sheep 
| Get Lost! bolts. Thousands of ani- 

| mals may follow, crazy with fear, 
| and go headlong over a cliff, into 
| a gorge. In our western country 
| each herd is followed by shepherds 
| who live in covered wagons. The 
| ranges are not fenced. The sheep 


lowed in the government’s forest | 
reserves. In Australia the ranges | 
are fenced with strong wire netting | 
to keep out the grass-eating rabbits | 
and kangaroos. Herd riders exam- | 
ine miles of fence every day. In | 
many countries shepherds have | 
summer huts on the mountains. I 


How the Collies Look After the Sheep 

All sheep men use dogs. We 
know the Scotch collies best. They 
are so beautiful and clever and af¬ 
fectionate that we make pets of 
them. They are white and tan, 

FaithfulServ- often with big black 
ants of the patches. Their glossy 
Shepherd coats are long, strong 

and waving. They carry their bushy 
tails proudly, like plumes. Their 


V# 


634 







V 

*♦ 


THE WOOL INDUSTRY 

j big brown eyes are so loving, in- 
| telligent and anxious to do right. 

| There are fine gray sheep dogs, too, 

| and black and white English shep- 
i herds. With their keen fox noses 
| sheep dogs can follow lost lambs for 
1 miles; and 


♦ ♦ 


The Tender 
Care of the 
Little Ones 


find flocks in 
drifted 
glens. At a 
word or a 
look from 
the master, a 
collie is off, 
like a bright, 
ambitious 
boy in an 
office, when 
sent on an 
errand. 

Sheep 
dogs and 
men must be 
patient but 
firm with a 


‘Wake Up, Master, Wake Up!’ 



In lambing time, they seem never | 
to sleep. If a lamb comes into the | 
world on a cold night, | 
it may die. The mother | 
has too little sense to | 
try to keep it warm. The dog | 

noses about | 
through the | 
flock. Sud- | 
d e n 1 y h e | 
barks ex- j 
citedly. 

“Master! | 
Come quick! | 
Here’s a new | 
baby!” | 

The shep- | 
herd under- | 
stands that I 


This little shepherd boy sleeps in the fold with his sheep. 
Yesterday both boy and dog roamed far and wide with 
their flock and they were very tired. It is morning now, 
but they are still sleeping soundly. The sheep see the sun¬ 
light streaming in through the window and are anxious to 
be off to the sweet, grassy hillsides. See how they crowd 
around their young master. 


bark. He 
runs with a 
warm blan¬ 
ket and car¬ 
ries the lamb 
to a fire in 


flock. Dogs 
seem to know that sheep are very 
foolish creatures, very timid and 
helpless. They say to them as 
plainly as possible: “Do as you are 
told, children, and I won’t let any¬ 
thing harm you.’’ 

Many Enemies of the Gentle Sheep 

Sheep have many enemies. In 
every northern country, there is 
some kind of wolf. We have the 
timber wolf and the coyote, or 
prairie wolf. In South Africa, a 
hungry lion sometimes visits the 
fold. In South America, there are 
mountain panthers, wild dogs and 
big eagle-like vultures. Sheep dogs 
fight all these wild beasts. Some¬ 
times they are killed; or they die 
after too long tramps in snow-storms 
without food. But a good sheep dog 
is always ready to give his life for 
the flock. 


the hut. The | 
dog nurse is so happy! When sure | 
that woolly baby is comfortable, he | 
scampers away to find another. In j 
the morning the lambs stagger about | 
on their wobbly legs and “baa!’’ for | 
their mothers. Men and dogs laugh j 
at them. Dogs do laugh—with their | 
eyes, their tails, their whole bodies. | 

Raising Sheep Babies on the Bottle 

Sometimes a stupid mother j 
doesn’t know her baby and refuses | 
to nurse it. Then a lamb has to | 
be brought up on a bottle. Per- | 
haps, Mary brought up her lamb that | 
way. No wonder it followed her | 
to school. But it must have taken | 
a good deal of Mary’s time to keep | 
that lamb as white as snow. 

Sheep are very dirty animals. | 
They perspire, just as you do, but | 
the perspiration is so thick and | 


8 


♦> 


6 35 





Siiiuiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiini* 

A Primitive “Woolen Factory” in France 



This French peasant girl guards her flock of .sheep day after day. See her shepherd’s staff, 
the heavy cape to protect her from the weather and her wooden shoes. Can you tell what she 
is doing? During many long hours the sheep graze contentedly and need very little watching, so 
she brings her knitting along with her to the pasture ground. You know the great woolen in* 
dustry, with.its knitting and weaving began in home weaving and knitting. Could you knit 
standing up? 


greasy that it cakes into a water¬ 
proof coating on the wool. This 
gathers dust and the wool gathers 
burrs and twigs. But there is a 
kind of potash in the perspiration. 
This with the fat, makes soap. So, 
for the washing that is given before 
shearing, a sheep is obliging enough 
to furnish its own soap. 

When the Sheep Takes Off His Overcoat 

Isn’t it nice, on a warm spring 
day to hang up your winter over¬ 
coat? From the way in which they 
caper about, after being sheared, 
sheep seem to be glad to lose their 

Shearing hot fleeces. First they 
With Mow - are scrubbed in a stream 
mg Machines Qr un( ] er a h ose . The 

fleeces are cut with big shears, by 
hand, or with a little mowing ma¬ 
chine that is run by a gasoline en¬ 
gine. In six or seven minutes a 


skillful man can take the fleece from 
an animal in one, unbroken piece 
that looks like a sheep skin rug. 
The fleeces are rolled and packed 
into big bales that weigh nearly 
four hundred pounds. 

How the Blanket Gets on Your Bed 

Wool takes a long journey and 
goes to the same markets as cotton. 
Like: 

“Dainty Baby Austin, 

Whose Daddy went to Boston, 

To see the King of Oo-rink-tum-Jing 
And the whale he rode acrost on,” 

that Mr. Riley tells us about, most 
of our wool goes to this big New 
W 00 7‘ England seaport. There, 

Takes Long if wool could see, in the 
Journeys big - warehouse, it would 

see woolen mill kings who buy wool 
to keep their factories busy. And it 




636 












:!iiiiii)iiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiin 



THE WOOL INDUSTRY 

would see thousands of other bales 
of wool that “rode acrost on” per¬ 
fect whales of ships, from far-away 
Sydney, Cape Town and Buenos 
Ayres. It would see long and short 
haired 


is thinner, and is often ragged. 
Near the hoofs it is more like hair. 
Each grade is thrown into a dif¬ 
ferent basket, and is kept separate 
while it is being washed. 

It would 


In the Days of Homespun 


fleeces, fine 
and coarse, 
gray and 
brown and 
black, for 
the bales 
are opened 
and sam¬ 
pled. 

It would 
hear some 
queer talk, 
too, and 
learn 
whether i t 
was to be 
turned into 
a soft little 
shirt for a 
baby, a 
pie c e of 
challie or 
veiling for 
a little 
girl’s party 
dress, a sweater, a blanket, a boy’s 
rough school suit, a felt carriage 
robe or a brussels carpet. Different 
mills make different cloths, and each 
uses special kinds of wool. 

Preparing the Wool for Weaving 

All factories prepare wool for 
weaving in much the same way. A 
man unrolls the fleeces on a table 
with a top of steel netting that lets 

Sorting in the dirt ^ T ° U & ^ 

the Woolen Each fleece is divided 
Mill down the back, and then 

pulled to pieces and graded. The 
wool on the sides and back is the 
best. On the under parts and legs it 


This is an old-fashioned spinning wheel which was to be 
found in every home a little over a century ago. Notice the 
flax at the left which the spinning wheel draws out into yam 
at the expense of much hard work of both hands and feet. 


be a lesson | 
to any little j 
girl who is | 
going to be | 
a house | 
mother by | 
and by, to | 
see how | 
carefully | 
wool i s j 
washed in a | 
woolen | 
mill. A j 

foreman | 
could ex- j 
plain why | 
he uses soft j 
water that | 
is neither | 
very hot | 
nor cold; j 
why the | 
wool is just | 
sloshed | 
around | 
gently in mild soap suds in the | 
machine, pressed lightly between | 
loose wringers and dried quickly in | 
warm, clean air. | 

Did You Know That Wool Has Teeth? 

Wool is a kind of hair. Stroked | 
toward the tip it feels silky; toward | 

What the the root, scratchy. It is | 
made up of teeth, or | 
scales, laid like shingles | 
on a roof, or the scales on a fish. | 
These teeth catch on each other and | 
the fibres mat, or felt, even when | 
the sheep is wearing its coat. The j 
curliness of wool makes it cling | 
more, and when hot or damp, or | 


Wool’s Teeth 
A. re For 


637 




^unimiiiiiiiiimHwmmimiiiiiiiuimiiiimiiiiniiniiiiimiiiiuniiiHiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiuiiuiinuMmimiHHHnnHHunraimniiBniiinimiiiiniiiiniiraniiin^ 

E= E3 

At the Hand Loom 




p 


1 


iHWi< 

1 

I 

jb 

1 *> ^ 


■ 


n J $■ 

jp 


1 

, 

is'. 


Here is a woman working one of the hand looms that wove the 
family supply of linen and homespun in days gone by. Notice the 
other old-fashioned things in the picture—the spinning-wheel, the 
rag rug, the queerly made chairs, candles and the andirons of the 
fireplace. If you ever wove one of the pretty rugs that many girls 
make in a course in Domestic Science, you know what hard work 
weaving was, how strong and patient our grandmothers must have 
been to do so much of it. 


| if pressed together, it felts. The 
| lime in hard water gets under the 
| teeth, and hardens wool. So does 
| the gummy resin in strong yellow 
| soap. In a mill the fleeces are 
| washed just as a good laundress 
| washes woolen clothes and blankets. 

Little curly-headed girls know 
| how their hair is after a shampoo. 

i Comlmg is full of “Fairy 

| the Sheeps Tingly-Tanglys.” The 

| Ha>r clean bunches of wool 

| have to be combed, too. Only it 
| does not hurt wool to be combed. 
| The bunches are put into a drum, 
| with cylinders set with little steel 
| teeth that pull every fibre separate. 
| The wool comes out a light and 
| fluffy mass, with the tangles gone, 
| but with the fibres lying every way, 
| and with burrs and twigs all through 
| it. Another machine brushes the 
| burrs out; or they are burned 
| out by being run through an acid 


bath that does not injure the wool. 

After washing, your hair is dry j 
and fly-away for a few days be- j 

AnJSieef cause ;t has lost the | 

“Use” natural oil. Washed | 

Hmr Oil wool is too dry and | 

harsh for spinning. It has to be | 
sprinkled with a mist of olive, or j 
tallow and lard oil. Then it is j 
combed or “carded,” as cotton is, | 
with teeth-set rolls. The fibres are | 
laid straight with the tips over- j 
lapping, in a sheet as wide as the j 
machine.. Then the sheet is divided | 
into ribbons. These pass through j 
the spinning rolls and are twisted | 
into loose, soft tubes that are drawn | 
into yarn threads ready for weav- | 
ing into cloth. | 

How Woolen Cloth Is Made 

Wool is woven into cloth just as j 
cotton is, on looms. But it takes a | 
great deal more work to finish | 


♦v 


♦.* 

♦♦ 


63 s 






g«iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE WOOL INDXJSTRY iiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiuiiiiimiuimimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimuiiiiiiiii^ 


woolen than cotton cloth. Cotton 
fibres are from three-quarters of 
an inch to two inches long, smooth 
and free from knots. Wool is from 
three to twenty inches long, twisty 
and uneven. It is 
first woven loose¬ 
ly. When it comes 
from the loom it 
looks like coarse 
bagging, and it is 
very oily. It is 
washed again, 
stretched on 
frames to dry, 
and the knots are 
picked out and 
holes darned. The 
cloth is then 
dampened and 
ironed between 
hot rollers. This 
shrinks it, and 
closes up all 
the open spaces. 

Sometimes it 
shrinks to half its 
length and width. If a smooth finish 
is wanted the “fuzz” is sheared off, 
and the cloth is ironed again. 

But in making broadcloth, with 
a nap like satin, the surface fibres 
are first picked up with little hooks. 
They are the same kind of hooks 
that scratch you sometimes. Guess 
what they are! 

Thistles! The teasel thistle is 
grown on farms. The heads are 
Something gathered and dried, and 
Thistles Are packed carefully, so as 
Good For no £ £ 0 p rea p the little 

elastic hooks that do this work bet¬ 
ter than any steel teasels. By their 
stems they are set in rows of holes 
around a cylinder. This is revolved 
just above a traveling belt of cloth, 
and a soft fuzz is pulled up all over 
the surface. A machine shears this 


fuzz to an even length, and another 
brushes it flat, so the loose fibres 
all lie one way. Ironing “naps” 
or “felts” it. You have to turn a 
napped cloth over to see how it is 

woven. 

How Blankets Are 
Made “Comfy” 

If a plushy sur¬ 
face is wanted, 
the fuzz is not 
brushed down, but 
is raised with hot 
air. Blankets are 
left fuzzy to make 
them soft and 
“comfy.” 

Felt cloth is not 
spun or woven. 
Sheets of combed 
wool are pressed 
damp between hot 
rolls. Knitting 
yarns must be 
carefully spun 
from wool with 
few knots. Un¬ 
derwear, sweaters and stockings are 
knitted on machines. Hundreds of 
needles are set in circles. The only 
knitting machines used to be mothers 
and grandmothers and little girls 
—especially little Puritan girls. 

Those far-away, quaint little 
grandmothers of ours knew as much 
What Wise about wool as the mill 
Little men of today do. They 

Grandmothers ha( J fo do al [ the kinds 

of work that are done now in the 
factories. They washed the wool 
in tubs. They combed it with hand 
“carders,” something like curry 
combs. They picked the burrs out 
by hand. They spun the wool into 
yarn on spinning wheels. They 
wove cloth and blankets on hand 
looms. They dyed cloth and knit¬ 
ting yarns with butternut husks, 


A Wool Warehouse in Peru 



© Underwood & Underwood 


This busy scene shows the interior of a 
wool warehouse in Peru. The Indian wo¬ 
men and children are sorting wool and 
their wages are twenty cents a day. 


Siiiiiiniifiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiniiminnminmiiiiiiniiinitiniiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 


639 










^Ill!ll!!lllllil!!lllllllllll!lll!lllllllll!llllllllll!lllll!llll!!lllll!!lllllllllllllll!l PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


Combing, Carding and Spinning 






© Underwood & Underwood 


In the upper left hand corner is || 
a picture of the carding machine B 
which untangles and straightens out = 
the wool fibres. You can get a B 
glimpse of the clean washed wool B 
being fed into it at the left of the s 
picture. 

The next picture gives you a closer || 
view of the hundreds of “teeth-set” s 
rollers in the machine. See the com- = 
plicated arrangement of belts by M 
which the rollers are kept rolling. || 
What an enormous job it must have B 
been when carding and combing was || 
done by hand! 

“The fibres are laid straight with = 
the tips overlapping, in a sheet as 1 
wide as the machine. Then the = 
sheet is divided into ribbons.” (You f| 
can see these white strips or ribbons || 
in the middle rolls.) “These pass B 
through the spinning rolls and are {§ 
twisted into loose, soft tubes that 1 
are drawn into yarn threads ready B 
for weaving.” |= 


64O 






















This ds the machine 
that twists the loose 
= woolen tubes into yarn. 


Next the yam is twist- j| 
ed into tough, strong 
threads. = 


A close view of the 
spinning machine shows 
you how the work looks 
at this stage. It is real¬ 
ly more like thread than 
yarn. 


© Underwood & Underwood 


f* 

♦V 


^iiiiiiii!iiiuiiijiiiiiiii!i!i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiii!!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiit THE WOOL INDUSTRY iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimK 

Further Steps in Spinning 












iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwiiiiim^ 


Weaving the Cloth 



© Underwood & 



Underwood 


At the left the yarn is being sized in the machine called a “slasher.” It wets the threads with 
sizing to make them smooth and quickly dries them again. 


To the right is the warping machine for arranging just the right number of threads, all parallel, 
on a roller together. They will be the warp threads of the cloth. Of course the number and their 
distance apart varies with the kind of cloth to be made. 



© Underwood & Undertcood 

The girl at the left is preparing the warp threads of wool for the particular kind of cloth to 
be woven. The process is called “drawing in.” 

At the right you see a modern weaving machine. With all its complicated wheels, levers and 
rollers, it is only a development of the hand looms of our grandmothers. 


642 













































ifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH THE WOOL INDUSTRY iiiiniiliiiilllliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH 

| Dressing Up” the Woven Wool I 



The man at the left is running woolen cloth through the teaseling machine which raises a nap 
on it by means of thistles. “By their stems they are set in rows of holes around a cylinder 
This is revolved just above a traveling belt of cloth, and a soft fuzz is pulled up all over the sur¬ 
face.” 

At the right the man is “fulling” the woolen cloth by wetting it. Later it will be heated, then 
pressed. All these processes give the cloth the close-woven, soft, lustrous finish we admire so 
much in woolen goods. 



s © Underwood & Underwood 

|| This is the machine that shears the nap from the cloth. The rods and rollers at the bottom 

{§ of the machine, over and between which the cloth must pass, serve to make the tension even, to 
hold the cloth in place, smooth but not too tight. The dark roller at the top has a series of re¬ 
volving knife blades that pass over the cloth, shearing it of nap as a lawn mower cuts the grass. 
^:illllllllllllllllill!llilllillllllllllllllllllllllll!llllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll[lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll^ 


643 






















t*«l!ll!ll!l!l!lll!llll!llllllll!!lll!ll!!!lll!lllll!!!l!!lll!!lllll!ll!!ll!ll!l!ll!lll!llll PICTURED 

| indigo and saffron. Their knitting 
| needles twinkled in the fire and 
| candle light. When they bought a 
| piece of merino for a Sunday gown 
| they made sure it was all wool. 

EEj 

How to Test Woolen Goods 

Get a lot of samples of cloth you 
| think are wool and test them. It’s 
| fun for a family or a class in school. 
| Sprinkle the samples with water. 
| Water soaks into cotton at once, but 
| it stands up on wool in beads. A 
j cotton thread feels smooth and it 
| breaks with a snap. Wool threads 


KNOWLEDGE miiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiBBiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiraiiBiiiiiiiiiBiiiiiiiiin^ 

are rough and elastic. They stretch j 
and part, leaving ragged ends. Cot- j 
ton chars, like paper or wood when j 
it is burned. It is a woody fibre. j 
Wool “curls up and dies,” as if in | 
pain, and has a bad smell, like burn- | 
ing hair. It is an animal fibre. Some | 
goods are a mixture of cotton and j 
wool. That is all right for many | 
purposes. But you shouldn’t pay as | 
much for it as for pure woolen cloth. | 
Ask grandmother what people | 
mean when they say that a thing | 
or person is “all wool and a yard | 
wide.” I 


I The Sheepfold 

I Shepherds all, and maidens fair, 

1 Fold your flocks up, for the air 

1 ’Gins to thicken, and the sun 

§ Already his great course hath run. 

1 See the dew drops how they kiss 

1 Every little flower that is; 

gj Hanging on their velvet heads, 

Like a rope of crystal beads, 

i See the heavy clouds low falling, 

§ And bright Hesperus down calling 

I The dead night from under ground; 

1 At whose rising mists unsound, 

i Damps and vapors fly apace, 

gj Hovering o’er the wanton face 

jg Of these pastures, where they come, 

| Striking dead both bud and bloom: 

1 Therefore, from such danger, lock 

= Every one his loved flock; 

1 And let your dogs lie loose without, 

| Lest the wolf come as a scout 

I From the mountain, and, ere day, 

§ Bear a lamb or kid away; 

1 Or the crafty thievish fox 

g Break upon your simple flocks. 

1 To secure your selves from these, 

I Be not too secure in ease; 

| Let one eye his watches keep, 

H While the other eye doth sleep; 

fj So you shall good shepherds prove. 

I —Beaumont and Fletcher 


♦A 




644 




THE WORLD AT ITS WORK 


It sounds like the fairy ham¬ 
mers of the genii on the walls of 
deep wells. That’s what it is— 
men hammering holes in the earth 
to find its “oil barrels.’’ Kero¬ 
sene is made from petroleum, or 
“rock oil.” Like gold, this pale 
yellow oil is found far down, in 
the rock layers of the earth. Men 
drill for it, as they drill for ar¬ 
tesian water. 

But it is not a mineral. You 
know coal is plants pressed into 
solid blocks. Nuts 
and olives and cotton 
seeds and castor beans 
and many other fruits 
in them. Cone bearing 
trees have an oily sap, as sugar 
v maples have a sweet sap. 

Turpentine and resin are 
liquids that ooze from 
lOAN the bark of pine trees. 
'I Spruce chewing 

gum oozes from 
j the k ar k 

/ m s P ruce tree - 

1 t 1 S 

\ thought 

\ \ that 

lA \ 1 petro- 


incoln was your age he 
e on his stomach before 
the fireplace, to get 
enough light to read 
by. In i860, when he 
was elected President, 
ople were still using 
No wonder it was “early 
to bed” in those days. Now, in 
every corner of the world, little 
white, black, brown, red and yel¬ 
low children study their lessons 
and play games by the soft, clear 
glow of the kerosene lamp. 

When Aladdin rubbed his 
magic lamp you know what hap¬ 
pened. One of the genii popped 
up, and there he was, / 

right in the middle of a 
made-up story. Let’s rub fr ® 
our lamps and jump into y 

a more wonder- /y 

ful, really truly 
story. ^ f 

What’s That Noise? 

“Clink- NS 

clank! \ ) IH 

clink- J=J \v j/m 

clank!” N \C 


Lincoln 
Was a 


How Oil 
Grew in the 
VC^oods 


gllj 

la 

Ff“ 

D 





1 


O <sdl 
1, 


645 




































































































t'«iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii | iiii |||||| ii ||||| i ||| i |1111111111111 ^ 


| leum is the sap of such plants. Some 
| of it may be the fat of sea animals 
| that soaked into the sandy bottoms 
| of ancient oceans. See how much 
| kerosene will soak into a bottle of 
I n .. dry sand. In some wav 

| in their great quantities ot oil 

| Dungeons were pressed into spongy 

1 rocks. Then the oil rocks were 


spring water. It spread a black, | 
ill-smelling scum on creeks and j 
ponds. Salt springs sometimes j 
spouted a thick, oily brine. It filled | 
some hollows and slowly dried to— j 
You want to find out for yourself, | 
don’t you? In western Pennsvl- | 
vania there was land that was just | 
soaked with oil. You can find Oil | 


In the Woods that Gave Us Oil 



Imagine yourself in this forest—at a safe distance from that queer animal. He is one of those |§ 
= monsters that is supposed to have turned into kerosene oil. And it was such woods as these that are M 
1 | supposed to have contributed their oily sap. §§ 


| roofed over with hard slate-like 
| rocks. So the oil was held prisoner 
| in underground dungeons for ages. 
| About fifty years ago a giant key 
| unlocked great treasure chests of 
| golden light. 

How the Oil Genii “Called for Help” 

Men thought there was oil in old 
| mother earth’s secret strong rooms. 
| Through cracks in that slate roof, 
| the oil broke prison and came to 
| the surface. It stood in beads on 

lllllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinillll!llllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllll 


City between Pittsburgh and Buf¬ 
falo. Many pioneers who built cab- 

Where the illS 011 011 Creek m0Ved 

9vfaft was away. Horses and cows 
Soa ^ e i., could not drink the oilv 
w ’ th °’’ water. Oil was needed 
so badly for lamps that a well was 
drilled there. Tons of tools and sup¬ 
plies were hauled through seventy- 
five miles of woods. A derrick, or 
skeleton tower of timbers, was set 
up. Under that two men drove fif¬ 
ty feet of hollow iron cylinders 


♦♦♦ 
♦ ♦ 


646 








THE STORY OF OIL 


a* 


down to bed rock. Black bears and 
wild cats and deer were in those 
woods. What do you suppose they 
thought of those queer doings? 

Driving the Key into the Genii’s Dungeons 

Into the iron-walled well, a 
“string” of tools was dropped. On 
one end was a huge auger, or cut¬ 
ting bit, of steel. An iron sinker 
bar was on the other. They were 
connected by iron links. The 
“string” was looped to a rope that 
passed over a pulley wheel at the 


ground cost $40,000, without find¬ 
ing oil. A well may be a “duster” 
or dry hole, a pumping well or a 
“gusher.” A “gusher” might be 
called a geyser. 

A Roaring Column of Oil 

“Clink-clank! clink-clank!” goes 
the drill, one minute. The next a 

ThnOut ton - wei S h t “string” is 

‘Rushed the 
Oil Giant 


hurled out and shot high 
above the derrick by a 
roaring column of petroleum. 


Can’t You Hear these Gushers Roar? 


Here are some oil wells which have just been “shot” with nitroglycerine. Can’t you fairly hear the ^ 
= “roaring column” as it shoots high above the derrick just as it is described as doing in our story? = 


| top of the derrick. The “string” of 
| tools was sixty feet long. It weighed 
| a ton. The auger cut through the 
| rock, the bar crushed it to sand. 
1 A nnn Forty times a minute bit 
| Joumey and and bar rose and tell. 
| Nohody at Sand and water had to 
| Home ‘ be bailed out. Broken 

| tools had to be “fished” out. One 
| man was kept busy sharpening au- 
| gers. All oil wells are drilled in 
1 this way. Drills may go down two 
1 thousand feet, and the hole-in-the 


The first well on Oil Creek was a | 
pumping well. At sixty-nine feet | 
in bed rock, the drill sank into the j 
oil sand stone. The well filled with | 
petroleum over night. The news j 
spread like wild fire. 

“Struck oil on Oil Creek!” | 

There was as much excitement as | 
when gold was found in California. | 
Oil City was like a mining camp | 
town. Pioneer farmers were mil- | 
lionaires over night. A ten mile j 


v: 


647 







iiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii* 


One of the Great Pumps 



This picture shows one of the great pumps by which the oil is sent through pipes underground. 
Its work is like the little pump in your own body which sends the blood through your “under¬ 
ground” pipes. This pump handles 60,000,000 gallons every twenty-four hours. Notice the words 
“S. O. Co.” near the governor of the engine. “The Standard” is the largest oil company in the 
world. 


forest of derricks sprang up along 
Oil Creek. Drills went deeper, 
through three slate roofs. A “gush- 

A Trouble- er ” was struck five hun- 
some Fortune dred feet down, in the 
to Hold third layer of sand 

stone. When oil was found men did 
not know what to do with it. Hand¬ 
ling petroleum was a new business. 
They had to learn how to store it, 
ship it and refine it. As it came 
from the earth petroleum was good 
for nothing. It was a thick, dark, 
gummy, vile-smelling fluid. It was 
smoky and exploded easily. 

The Oil River System Under Your Map 

It was pumped into barrels first, 
then into tanks on flat boats. Some¬ 
one thought of pumping it to mar¬ 


ket, through iron pipes. Wasn’t 
that a bright idea? Now there is 
an underground “river system” of 
hollow iron pipes that carries noth¬ 
ing but oil. It starts in Texas. It 
runs north through Kansas. It tun¬ 
nels under the Mississippi River 
and crosses Illinois, Indiana, Ohio 
Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 
Branch pipe-lines run out to the oil 
fields along the way. Every thirty 
or more miles there is a pumping 
station, with storage tanks. 

Steam “Heart Throbs” That Pump Oil 

A steam pump forces the oil 
through the pipes, under rivers and 
over mountains. Whirligigs of blades 
called “go-devils” are carried along 
to keep the pipes scraped clean. A 



648 













is Brought to the Surface 




mm 


Here the artist has summed up the story of where oil is found and how it is brought to the sur¬ 
face. A curious thing about it is that the oil furnishes its own power for being raised to the 
surface. This power comes from the gas which the oil itself gives off. Notice at the bottom in the 
section marked “Oil Sand” how the gas is forcing the oil up through the pipe to the tanks above, 
as indicated by the arrows. 


649 






















^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 

I A “Tank Farm" 1 



This is a scene in the oil fields of Kansas and is called a “Tank Farm.” You can see why—it’s 
on a farm where they “raise” oil. This farm is near Neosha. Each of those tanks holds 35,000 
barrels of oil. Figure out from the number of tanks how much oil there is stored here when all 
these tanks are full. 


| well owner stores his oil in huge iron 
| tanks, as a farmer stores wheat in an 
| elevator. When he sells his oil he 
| opens a faucet and lets it flow into 
| his branch pipe-line. At the refinery, 
| on some sea or lake port, or railroad 
| center, another faucet lets a stream 
| of oil into a six hundred barrel tank. 

To properly understand refining, 
| you must know what petroleum is. 
| You know that water may be in the 
| form of a vapor, a liquid or a solid. 
| It is some- 
| times steam, 

| sometimes 
| ice. Petro- 
| leum is one 
| form of 
| bitumen. 

| There is a 
| solid bitu- 
| men and 
| a vapor 
| bitumen. 

J Haven’t 
| you seen 
| men spread 
| asphalt on 
1 a street? It 


is hot and soft. It smokes and smells j 
like roofing tar. When cold it hard- | 
ens. Asphalt is a solid bitumen. It | 
is petroleum that came to the surface | 
and dried out. | 

Next to the asphalt is “mineral” | 
pitch, a thick, oily paste, on the way | 
to drying to asphalt. The third | 
bitumen is petroleum, or rock oil. j 
The fourth is a thin, clear, gas-like | 
liquid called naphtha. And then | 
comes natural gas. All these are | 

found sep- | 
arately i n | 
the earth, j 
Petroleum | 
hasthemid- | 
die place | 
among the | 
bitumens. | 
It is the | 
mother of | 
gas, naph- | 
tha, pitch | 
and asphalt, | 
as water is | 
£he mother | 
of v a p o r | 
and ice. All I 


Building a Mammoth Tank 



At Port Townsend, Washington, the Standard Oil Company 
have a huge reservoir with thick concrete walls which prevent 
the spreading of the oil and lessens the danger from fire. The 
illustration shows the reservoir in process of construction. In 
the foreground are tanks used in connection with the shipment 
of the oil. 


$llll]l!llllllllllll!llllll!llllllllllll!llill!lllllllll]lillllllllllllllllll]ll]|||l!llllll]l!!in 


650 





















ttiiiiiiuiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiinnniiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiniiitiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiuiiiiiiiniiitiiiinniiitiiiM 


THE STORY OF OIL iiniliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


One of the Pipe Lines 



Here is where one of the great pipe lines into which that huge pump sends the oil, is running 
above the ground across an oil field. Notice the derrick in the distance. 



the other forms of 
troleum and can be 
And it is as sim¬ 
ple as turning 
water into steam. 

Many things 
beside water can 
be boiled, even 
gold and iron. 
Metals like very 
hot fires. Oils 
boil or give off 
vapor with less 
than half the heat 
needed by water. 
Gasoline, one of 
the naphthas, 
evaporates quickly 
just in warm air. 
Kerosene, if heat¬ 
ed to no degrees, 
gives off a gas 
vapor that can be 
lighted with a 


bitumen are in pe- match. Machine oil takes more heat 
separated from it. to vaporize. There are still heavier 

oils, waxes and 


Shall 1 Stop Here? 






Here is a railway distributing station on the 
underground oil railroad. By a turn of the 
wheel the flow of oil is stopped or sent on in 
the proper direction. 


gums in petro¬ 
leum. 

The big tank 
of petroleum in 
the refinery is 
warmed by steam 
coils. Soon the 
naphtha in it boils 
and passes off, in 
vapor, into pipes 
kept cold by icy 
water baths. 
There the va¬ 
por turns into a 
liquid, as steam 
condenses on a 
cold window. 
When the naph¬ 
tha stops coming 
the heat in the 
tank is increased. 


ni 
















&iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiih PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinw^ 


Loading Tank Steamers with Oil 



This is a fine view of a 
“tank steamer” at Port 
Arthur, Texas, being filled 
with oil. These pipes are 
a part of the great pipe 
system which connects 
the oil refineries. One of 
the tanks of the steamer 
is being filled by means 
of the large hose in front 
of the man. One end of 
the hose is attached to 
these pipes and the other 
end discharges the oil 
into the tank. Port Ar¬ 
thur is near the Gulf of 
Mexico, about thirty 
miles southeast of Beau¬ 
mont, Texas. Two of the 
largest oil refineries in 
the world are located 
here and give employ¬ 
ment to a large percent¬ 
age of the population. 


when put in a 
lamp. Sulphur 
makes a lamp 
smell badly. Acid 
and carbon specks 
make lamps 
smoke. Kerosene 
has to be washed 
in soda water and 
filtered. The soda 



| Then the kerosene vaporizes. The 
| heat gradually rising, machine oils 
| are separated, then vaseline, axle 
| grease and wax. The wax is paraf- 
| fin. What is left in the tank is pitch 
| and asphalt. These can be separated, 
| too, leaving pure carbon or coke. 
| Out of that electric light carbons are 
| made, and crayons for drawing. 


Two Hundred Things That Came With 
the Oil Light 

In drilling for petroleum, men 
wanted lamp oil. They got it, but 
they got a great number of other 
useful things with it—nearly two 
m vr hundred of them. Every 

The Kerosene J 

and the family uses kerosene, 

s °f a gasoline, vaseline, ma- 

vv citct* -i • *1 i cr 

chine oil and paramn 
wax. All these things have to be 
purified and tested. If any naphtha 
is left in kerosene, it may explode 


* 


eats the acid out. | 

King Kerosene the “Globe Trotter” 

Crude oil goes to refineries by | 
pipe lines. But kerosene is shipped | 
in iron tanks, mounted on flat cars. | 
You see them on every railroad, j 
Tank wagons take the oil to store j 
keepers. From the very first we | 
tt , had oil to sell in other I 

flow the , n 

Oil is countries. And for g 

twenty years we had all | 
roa the oil that had been | 

found. It was shipped in barrels in | 
sailing vessels. Steamers were | 
afraid to carry it. Oil and fire were | 
rather dangerous neighbors on the | 
ocean. Now it is safe. The oil is j 
pumped into fire-proof iron tanks | 
in the holds. From foreign seaports | 
oil is sent on in tank cars. 

In parts of the world where there | 
are no railroads, kerosene is sent on | 

llllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllM 


652 











THE STORY OF OIL 
An Interesting Chapter in the Story of Oil 


v 




In the far away East Indies where modern methods of transportation have not yet come into use, 
oil rides on the backs of strong brown men who march in long lines with their loads. They are 
carrying the oil from the ship to warehouses. 

Transporting Oil in the Orient 


Here we see camels loaded with oil ready to start across the desert. The natives in eastern 
countries value highly the tin cans when empty. They make them into various domestic utensils, 
such as cooking vessels and lamps, and use them for roofing small houses. 

^llllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllN 


- y, : 


653 
































^iiiiiiuiiiiiniiiiiiii......... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ».... 

I This Oil Reservoir Holds 



Here you see, being built, an enormous concrete reservoir for holding oil. It is on a tank farm near San Luis 
ladder, the steel rods around which the concrete is molded in its soft state. The concrete walls, bridges, viaducts 
It is just like the ancient cliff dwellers using sticks to help hold their mud floors together on the “front porch/' 


.. •• v 


Map of the Oil Regions 


= 









*: 


654 























































mmmmmmmmmmimmmmmmimi:mimiimm . iiiiiiiiiiiiii ... mil THE STORY OF OIL .. . ..... mu. . 

S3 

33 

a Hundred Million Barrels I 



bispo, California. It is now completed and has a capacity of 100,000,000 barrels. Notice, on the right near the 
id other engineering works so built are called “reinforced” concrete, 
i shown in the picture in the story of our National Parks. 


Now Into 
Native 
Sail Boats 


in many curious ways. It is put in¬ 
to tin cans that hold two or five 
gallons. Native sail¬ 
boats carry cargoes of 
oil in these cases up 
countless rivers into the 
heart of China, India, Africa and 
South America. Where the boats 
stop, the cases are loaded on pack 
animals. Camels carry them across 
deserts; elephants over mountains ; 
burros to Mexican mines; water 


buffaloes to Philippine plantations. | 
Patient donkeys draw oil tank carts | 
for peddlers. Men wheel the tanks i 
on push carts and barrows. No j 
country is too distant, no people so | 
poor that they cannot have Ameri- | 
can kerosene. j 

The great Standard Oil Company | 
has an army of agents | 
scattered all over the j 
world. Each agent is a | 
soldier with officers over him. He is 1 


The Army 
of 

Salesmen 


Six Acres of Oil 



These workmen are putting a roof over the million barrel concrete oil tank which covers six 
acres at San Luis Obispo, California. 



655 











| told to open new trade routes. He 
| must show ignorant people how to 
| use and care for lamps. For some 
| very poor people in China and the 
| sea islands a good, cheap lamp had 

A Volcano Made by Man 




H When an oil well catches on fire it looks like a volcano 
= and may burn for days. The country round about is covered 
§§ with heavy black smoke and soot. 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

to be made, and sold below cost. | 
Governments have had to be asked | 
not to tax the oil, so that the poor | 
could buy it. 

Part of the oil trade is being | 
taken from us by Russia. Some | 

people 4, think it would | 
be a good thing if we j 
sold still less. You | 
see every oil well, | 

' and even whole oil | 
fields, go dry. A | 
“gusher” dies soon, g 
like a geyser, and has | 
to be pumped. When j 
the pumps fail, a | 
giant torpedo is put | 
into the well and ex- | 
ploded, to break up | 
the oil sand stone. | 
After an earthquake j 
shock, a column of | 
oil, smoke and rocks shoots | 
up. The pumps can then get | 
more oil. But a time comes when j 
“shooting” a well does no good. The | 
oil is all gone. Few wells flow long- | 
er than five years. The oil com- | 
panies hunt for new fields all the time. | 
We are glad that oil fields have | 
been found in Russia, Austria, Japan | 
and India, so that we need not send | 
so much away to other countries. | 

That Bubbling Lake of Oil 

You will find many interesting | 
things in the picture of the crude oil | 
flowing into the temporary earthen | 
reservoir. No doubt you | 
wonder why the oil would | 
not seep back into the earth. | 
The answer is that where one | 
of these big pits is properly | 
dug the soil is scraped away | 
until comparatively solid | 
earth is reached, and then | 
this earth is beaten, or | 
tamped, as hard as possible, | 



♦ ♦ 




656 





g i!I!!iiii!!!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii: E STORY OF OIL lminiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiinmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiimiiiiiiiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiBiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiS 


A Big Lake of Oil 



Crude oil is here being pumped into an earthen reservoir at Muskogee, Oklahoma, through that big j§ 
H pipe on the left. The reservoir is just a big pit scraped out of the ground as you see men doing when j§ 
|§ they are digging out the foundation of a big building. H 


| much as they used 
| to tamp down the 
| earthen floors of 
[ log cabins. After 
| this is done the oil 
| seldom soaks in 
| more than five or 
| six inches. 

Now, what do 
| you suppose those 
| two dark masses in 
| the center of the 
| picture are? They 
| look like brush or 
| rubbish of some 
| sort, don’t they? 
| As a matter of fact, 
| all the rubbish and 
| loose dirt is scraped 
1 away, and what 
| you see there is 
| simply the crude, 
| black oil being 
| forced up into the 
| air by the pressure 
| of oil and gas 


Pulling Out a Casing 



This is the tube or casing of an oil well. 
The well is dry now, so the casing is being 
pulled out to be used again somewhere 
else. 


which is coming in | 
through that great j 
pipe. The end of [ 
the pipe itself is j 
probably just about | 
under those black | 
spots in the picture. | 
In the back- | 
ground of this | 
“lake of oil” you j 
notice there is a | 
line which looks as | 
though it might be | 
a temporary dam | 
or dike. This is | 
simply more oil | 
bubbling up from | 
various feed pipes | 
which are coming | 
into the reservoir | 
from different | 
sides. | 

Oil reservoirs of j 
this kind are only | 
used for temporary | 
storage and are | 


65 7 




















$$iiiiiiiiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiinn^^ . nill f| 


Letting Down the Loaded Shell 



© Keystone View Co. 


This is a scene in the = 
oil fields in Pennsylvania. | 
It shows a workman let- = 
ting down into an oil well j| 
a shell loaded with nitro- = 
glycerine. The shell is ex- = 
ploded at just the point || 
where it is necessary to = 
break up the strata in or- ^ 
der to make the oil flow. || 
The shell must be lowered || 
with care on this account. = 
In order to do this the || 
“shooter,” as he is called, j| 
fastens his reel by clamps || 
to the fly-wheel of the en- || 
gine used in drilling the = 
well. On this reel is wound = 
a thin but strong manila || 
rope about 2,000 feet long. = 
When the engine is started jj| 
the shells are lowered, one E 
at a time, into the well. H 
After each shell is lowered §| 
the measuring steel tape is |j 
let down to determine n 
whether the shell is at the ^ 
proper depth. With his left j| 
hand the shooter is hold- = 
ing the brake of the wheel = 
to stop instantly, if neces- s 
sary, the descent of the = 
shell. = 


| usually constructed only when a 
| big, new supply of oil has been dis- 
| covered, or where it is necessary to 
| get additional storage quickly be- 
| cause the oil is flowing out so fast. 

Of course you know those tall fig- 
| ures in the background are oil der- 
I ricks. 

1 Will We Miss the Oil When the Wells 

Run Dry? 

A dry water well is filled again 
| by rains. A cut-over forest can be 
| replanted, but when our oil is gone 
| it will be gone forever. Perhaps, 
| then, we shall all have gas or elec- 
| trie lights. But these need expen- 
| sive pipes and wires. There may 
| never be another source of light 
| found as cheap as oil and as easily 
| carried wherever boats and animals 
| and men can make their way. 


Helping People See to Think 

Some people think petroleum the | 
greatest discovery of the century. It | 
has lifted millions of people out of | 
the darkness of night and mind. | 
Working every moment of daylight, g 
the poorest people could not even | 
learn to read. After toil they sat | 
in dreary darkness, unable to see to | 
do anything. | 

Rub your kerosene lamp. It is | 
more wonderful than Aladdin’s! § 
Can’t you see happy family groups, | 
of white and black, red and yellow | 
and brown people? Father is read- | 
ing, mother writing a letter, chil- [ 
dren playing games and studying | 
lessons in countless, softly lighted | 
rooms. | 

Bravo! Good oil genii of the j 
magic lamp! | 


^uuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


658 






Ipiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE STORY OF OIL uiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


Jack Squib ’ Loaded with Dynamite Ready to Drop Into the Well 



= © Keystone View Co. 


The workman is here H 
holding ud what is called 3 
the “Jack Squib,” so that 3 
you may have a good look 3 
at it before he drops it into = 
the well. The “Jack Squib” m 
contains the dynamite, |l 
It is a tin pipe closed t§ 
at the pointed end and filled l| 
to the depth of several §§ 
inches with sand or dirt. H 
Imbedded in this sand is a 3 
stick of dynamite, in which M 
are long powder fuses with ^ 
fuse caps on the ends of §| 
them. Sand is packed f| 
around these fuses so that M 
they will burn slowly and = 
thus prevent an explosion 3 
before the dynamite reaches H 
the proper spot. This man = 
will light the fuses, drop n 
the squib into the well and s 
stay there until he hears an 3 
explosion. Then he will run = 
to a safe distance. 


When the Paraffin Makes 
Trouble 


Here is a diagram of an oil well, 
s The oil is in the layer of sand be¬ 
ll tween the two layers of slate. It 
h oozes and drips into the cavity. C, 
H and down to the pocket, D, below. 
M But paraffin wax is also present 
= wherever petroleum is found. This 
H wax collects on the edges of the 
H cavity in the oil sand and corks up 
§f all the cracks so that the oil cannot 
H come through. A steamer has been 
= invented which removes the paraf- 
H fin. It consists of a metal tube, in 
= the upper part of which is a smaller 
3 tube, B, containing water, with 
H small holes in the bottom through 
H which the water is sprayed evenly 
3 into the larger tube. In the bottom 
M of the larger tube are pieces of cast 
3 iron which have been heated white 
1 hot. The water from the smaller 
3 tube dropping on the hot iron is 
3 changed to steam, which, by expan¬ 



sion, is pushed upward and out 3 
through the holes in the larger tube 3 
with great force. This steam sprays || 
the walls of the cavity and melts m 
the paraffin, which runs down into m 
the pocket, D. The steamer is s 
drawn up and the pocket filled with §j 
boiling water to keep the paraffin || 
melted. Another steamer is low- || 
ered into the cavity while the iron || 
pieces of the first one are reheated. §1 
The water, E, is kept hot by low- = 
ering the part of the steamer con- = 
taining the hot iron into it each = 
time before drawing it up. This jf 
process is kept up for from five to || 
eight hours, at the end of which |j 
time all the paraffin has been melt- || 
ed from the sand walls of the cav- 3 
ity and has run down into the boil- ^ 
ing water, E, in the pocket. This s 
water and paraffin is then pumped g 
out and the oil again runs freely. 


; T : 


♦♦ 


659 



























































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiniiiitj 


Good Housekeeping in “Big Business” 



“Saving the Fat” 


It is curious how much little homes are like big, modern industries. A good housewife lets 
nothing go to waste. In what are often called “the big businesses,” the same thing is true. Here is 
an illustration of it. In the oil business, the water used in washing out the stills, the tanks of 
steamers and barges—in fact, everything that has had any oil in it—is run into great open tanks 
like this. Then, of course, you know what happens—the oil rises to the top and is run off just 
as mother skims the various kinds of oil in cooking and saves it to be used again. Ask her about 
different ways in which she saves things that would otherwise go to waste. 



jjj © Keystone View Co. © Keystone View Co. j| 

Another Form of Good Housekeeping in “Big Business” 

As in other large industrial enterprises where “containers”—such things as boxes and cans for 
containing products—are used, the big oil companies make their own cans for holding kerosene and 
the boxes in which these cans are exported. The picture on the right shows the nailing machine, 
nailing boxes together. On the left is a conveyor which carries the boxes and the tin cans to the 
department in which the cans are filled and put into the boxes. The cans are placed on a platform 
which revolves, bringing them successively under faucets attached to the large galvanized tank seen 
in the background. Here the cans are filled just as the grocer fills our kerosene can. 



660 





















After that part of petroleum which is intended for the family lamp has been subjected to all the 
tests known to chemistry, it is given the final test of actual burning in various kinds of lamps. You 
know the old saying, “the proof of the pudding is in the chewing of the string.’’ 

Other Testers at Work 


The “still man” (on the left) superintends the process of distilling the oil. He is here testing 
the product from different stills. The man on the right is testing the kind of oil used in machinery. 



















NOT 


s -rONY ZOn 


aty CS TOt A l 


s -fOHY ZO N £ 


Ti -G RADIOS 


MtL.ES TH*C^ 


“Scientists now believe that all the radium contained in the earth is to be found in the outer crust, 
instead of being scattered all through the earth’s bulk. The radium was forced outward along with 
the lighter rocks which form the earth’s crust, so that there is little or none deep down in the earth.” 


IRON HEART 
OF THE 
EARTH. 
NO RADIUM 


662 











What is 
Radium? 




Like a Little Sun 

In one year one ounce of radium gives out as much 
heat as could be obtained by burning twenty pounds 
of coal. 


Y OU think a thing pretty val¬ 
uable that is worth its 
weight in gold, don’t you? Ra¬ 
dium is a mineral that looks like 
pale yellow salt, but it is worth 
three thousand times as much as 
gold. It is called radium from 
a word meaning “light” because 
it gives off powerful heat and 
light rays that penetrate solid 
objects. Professor and Madame 
Curie discovered it when work¬ 
ing with uranium ore in the 


-UiifcSsSJ <5 EE? b= *g 


physical laboratory of 
the University of Paris. 

It has since been found 
in carnotite ore in Colorado and 
Utah. There are only two grains 
,, Q .. n . in a ton of the richest 

That Shine ore, and the process of 
Through Stone separating it is costly. 

As radium is always one and a 
half degrees warmer than the air 
around it, it is thought to explain 
the retention of heat by the earth 
and other heavenly bodies, espe¬ 
cially as its rays go through sol¬ 
ids. 

There are three families of 


Source of Light 
and Heat That Is 
Worth Three Thou¬ 
sand Times as Much 
as Gold 


THE HOW AND WHY 
OF COMMONTHINGS 

RADIUM 


663 





























ATOMS of HELIUM 

producing sp!»&h«s of tighl as they 




that cover* it; this *h©«*$ 
how the$ appear tothe 


-7 - 

eyo ufidef wry nigh 
magnification 


By means of a spinthariscope, the helium atoms can be actually seen flying off from a par¬ 
ticle of radium, like the explosions of a bundle of firecrackers. The spinthariscope is a small 
instrument having a powerful magnifying lens and containing a disc covered with a film of 
zinc sulphide. 


these rays, called Alpha, Beta and 
Gamma rays, from letters in the 
Greek alphabet. The Alpha family 
are helium atoms charged with pos¬ 
itive electricity. They have not 
much penetrating power and can be 
stopped by a single sheet of paper. 
The second family of radium rays 
are negative electrons or parts of 


atoms, which can pass through some 
solids—glass and aluminum, for in¬ 
stance. The third set, the Gamma 
rays, have the greatest penetrating 
power of all. They are not electri¬ 
fied either positively or negatively 
and can pass through several inches 
of lead, water or iron. 

Radium rays are used in photo- 






..Illlliillllllllll PICTURED KNOWLEDGE IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHHIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIJJ 

1 The Flight of the Atoms | 


664 











. . . 1 . 111111 . 11111111 . 11 . 1111111111 . 11111111111,11 . . RADIUM ....mu.... 

1 The Radium Rock and Its Precious Prisoner I 



This is carnotite ore from Colorado. A ton of the very best of this ore yields only two grains 
of radium. 


graphing hidden parts of the body, 
to locate bullets and injuries to 
bones and for the treatment of sur¬ 
face cancers. Wouldn’t you like to 
How the know how they discov- 

■"Professor ered the effect of the 

Was Burned ra y S on the body ? 

When Professor Becquerel of Paris, 
was experimenting with radium he 
carried a test tube containing it in 
his waistcoat pocket. Two weeks 
later a peculiar burn appeared on 
the skin beneath the pocket where 
the radium had been. Since then 
many experiments have been made 
and a big laboratory especially for 
the study of radium as a cure for 
disease has been built in Paris. 

The “alchemists” of the Middle 
Ages tried to make gold out of other 
substances. Their methods were 
crude and unscientific and the ma¬ 
jority of the men themselves were 


ignorant imposters claiming to be 
magicians. When people really be¬ 
gan to study the elements of which 
the earth is composed they decided 
that there were a certain number of 
these elements and no more, and 
that they could not be changed or 
broken up. So they laughed at the 
poor old alchemists for thinking 

copper or carbon, for instance, could 
be changed into gold. But the dis¬ 
covery of radium 'has proved that 
one substance can change into an¬ 
other. It was found that uranium 
Dream is constantly giving off 

of the particles or rays which 

Alchemists contain radium and that 

radium, in turn, gives off thirty-four 
thousand million atoms of helium a 
second. In the same way thorium 
breaks up into other elements, and 
lead is now known to be formed 
from another metal. So the old 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


665 






tJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiuiiiiiM 


alchemists were right after all in 
thinking that one element could be 
produced from another, although 
no one has ever learned how to 
change baser metals into gold. 

Scientists now believe that all the 
radium contained in the earth is to 
be found in the outer crust and 
their reason for this is very inter¬ 
esting. Since radium and its “kin- 


til some day it would burst into 
flames. But in the millions of years 
which have elapsed since the forma¬ 
tion of the earth as a solid, enough 
heat would have been given off by 
the radium in it to produce this re¬ 
sult several times over. Why didn’t 
it happen? Because it is now 
^thought there isn’t as much radium 
in the world as was at first sup- 



folks” in the chemical world are 
constantly giving off heat, the earth 
must be getting hotter from year to 
year. -If tliere was radium all 
through the earth’s mass in the same 
quantity as at the surface (2 grains 
to a ton of rock), the heat pro¬ 
duced would be 250 times greater 
than the quantity which the earth 
daily gets rid ~>f in its ordinary cool¬ 
ing-off process, and our planet would 
gradually get hotter and hotter un¬ 


posed. It is believed that instead 
of being scattered all through the 
earth’s bulk, making the tempera¬ 
ture at the center go up and up, 
the radium was forced outward 
along with the lighter rocks which 
form the earth’s crust, so that there 
is little or none to be found deep 
down in the earth, and the earth’s 
radium produces only enough heat 
to balance that which is continually 
being given off into space. 


giiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiM 


666 



































Map-Picture Story of Uncle Sam’s Resources and Great Industries 



If you could visit the United States “all at once” this map tells in a striking way how its natural resources and the great industries based upon them would look, and where they are located: 


WESTERN STATES. 

1, Fishing Schooner. 2, Fishing Boat. 3, Salmon 
Fishing. 4, Apples. 5, Wheat. 6, Copper. 7, Hogs. 
8 . Sheep. 9, Lumber. 10, Lumber Boat. 11, Grapes! 
12, Gold and Silver. 13, Silver. 14, Salt 15 Cat-! 
tie, Horses and Sheep. 16, Coal. 17, Alfalfa' 18 
Copper. 19, Gold. 20, Peaches. 21, Oil. 22, Oranges! 
23, Dates. 24, Vegetables (Irrigated Land). 25 Ap! 
pies (Irrigated Land). 26, Sheep. 


CENTRAL STATES. , „. ir 

1, Spring Wheat. 2, Lumber. 3, Copper. 4,_r lou 
Mill. 5, Iron. 6, Apples. 7, Potatoes. 8, Dairy. 
9, Butter and Cheese. 10, Cattle. 11, ^° rse f' , c’ 
Corn. 13, Packing House. 14, Lumber Yard. > 
General Manufacture. 16, Hogs. 17, Oats. 18, 
tie. 19, Apples. 20, Winter Wheat. 21, Lum • 
22, Furniture. 23, Automobiles. 24, Oil. 25, 
bacco. 


SOUTHERN STATES. 

tabies C fi e 'T 2 ’ u heep - 3 - Horses - 4, Oil. 5, Vege- 
9 Fnil 6 ’, n Lu ? ber - 7 - Sugar Cane. 8, Steel Mill. 
13 T\fh, 10, , C . 0tt ,? n ' U - Turpentine. 12, Lumber 

apples ba 17 ° 14 » Ve « etables - 1S - Oranges.' 16, Pine¬ 
apples. 17, Oyster Boats. 18, Oyster Boat. 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC. 

1, Cattle. 2, Grain Elevator. 3, Butter. 4. Cattle. 
5, Steel Manufacturing. 6, Oil. 7, Coal. 8, Peanuts. 
9. Tobacco. 

NEW ENGLAND STATES. 

1, Lumber. 2, Fishing Boat. 3, Oyster Boats. 4 
Paper Mill. 5, General Manufacturing. 6, Fishing. 












































































: 


























' 



























































Two Little Lambs 

One of the strongest arguments in favor of farm life and the back-to-the-land move¬ 
ment is the good health and happiness that are the inheritance of the children reared 
in the country. All little folks are interested in animals and when they can have a 
baby lamb for a pet, as this little girl has—! 


T F it were not for plants, we 
should all die for lack of food, 
shelter, clothing and fuel. The 
plant gathers certain materials 
from the earth and air and makes 
them into food for our table. 
Some of the food provided by 
plants such as nuts, apples, or¬ 
anges, bananas, strawberries, let- 
FoodMadeof tuce, onions and the 
Earth and Air pp e> are ready for our 

use. Other plant products are 
used by us as food only after they 
have been especially prepared by 


means which we have invented. 
Among these products is wheat 
which we grind at the mill where 
the fine white part which we call 
flour is separated from the coarse, 
dark parts, called bran and mid¬ 
dlings. We make the flour into 
bread, and it is ready to be eaten. 

A long time ago when man 
lived in caves, he first discovered 
that wheat was good to eat but 
he did not know how to grind it 
into flour or bake it into bread. 
He gathered the berries of the 










THE WO RLD AT ITS WORK 
agriculture 


The New Life on the Farm 





















































































































tviiiiiiii!iiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiii!iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii* 


wild wheat plant with his hands, 
ground them between his teeth and 
ate them raw—flour, bran, mid¬ 
dlings, and all. 

Other plant products, such as 
grass, hay, and straw are not suit¬ 
able as food for us, but they 
are good feed for many 
kinds of animals, as cattle 
and sheep for example. The 
flesh of these animals is very 
valuable as food for man; 
their wool and skins are 
valuable as clothing and 
their horns, hoofs and bones 
are serviceable for tools and 
ornaments. The fishes of the 
sea live upon plants or upon 
other animals which live 
upon plants. 

The trees of the forest are 
so coarse and their bodies 
are so dense and hard that 
only the tenderest branches 
are useful as food for ani¬ 
mals, but the trees furnish the 
material for shelter, fuel, 
tools, and ornaments. From 
the sap of some trees sugar 
is obtained, others produce 
medicines with which to cure 
our ailments; from others, 
fibre is obtained from which 
we make paper, clothing, 
rope and carpets. 

Thus it is that the plants 
of the field, the forest, the plain and 
the sea, furnish either directly or in¬ 
directly all the food we eat, all the 
clothing we wear, all the fuel need¬ 
ed to keep us warm, and most of the 
shelter and medicine we require. 
Plants are, therefore, the basis of all 
life and most of the comforts and 
conveniences of the world. 

The Beginning of Agriculture 

To learn how to grow plants and 


how to feed and care for live stock 
was man’s first great lesson in get¬ 
ting on in the world. In the begin¬ 
ning he did not plow, and sow, and 
reap as he now does and he had no 
tame animals to help him do his 

Primitive Agriculture 


work. He depended upon wild 
plants and wild animals for his food 
and clothing. As he advanced in 
intelligence he learned to gather the 
seeds of the plants which he had 
found to be of greatest use to him 
and to scatter them on suitable soil, 
and to await the harvest which he 
gathered with his hands. He had 
not yet learned to help these plants 
by cultivating the soil to keep worth¬ 
less plants from crowding them. 



Though civilization began in Asia, many primitive 
methods of agriculture are to be seen there today. The 
picture shows Arabs scraping the soil (the process is 
not worthy of the name of plowing) with a curved stick 
in the same way that their forefathers did thousands 
of years ago. 


^IIIIIIIIIUIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN .Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll.. 


668 





ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM iiiiininiiniiinmiiiiniiinniiiiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini^ 

| The First Parents of the Potato and Apple | 



At the left is the solanum tuberosum, the plant from which man has developed the Irish potato. 
More familiar is the small, sour, wild crab-apple at the right, from which the hundreds of varieties 
of apples on the market today were produced. Both these plants changed their nature and habits 
to such an extent because man has vastly improved their environment. A constant and liberal 
supply of food deepens the color and increases the number of flowers and fruit. Shelter from bad 
weather lengthens the bearing season. All living things respond to a change in their environment 
and plants are not slow to alter their structure and habits because of it. 


He soon began to tame some of 
the wild animals—the dog and the 
chicken among the first—and to make 
them help him get a living. Among 
the plants which man used at an 
early period in his civilization were 
wheat, barley, rice, millet, apples, 
grapes, olives, apricots, peaches, 
pears, figs, dates, bananas, quinces 
and sorghums for food, and flax and 
hemp for clothing. It is known that 
these plants were used by man more 
than four thousand years ago. Then, 
these plants were not so highly im¬ 
proved as they are now. 
The apple, for example, 
Crabs was a small, sour, wild 

fruit scarcely better than 
our native crab. Now, there are more 
than a thousand kinds of apples, 
varying in size from the small Lady 
apple to the mammoth Wolf River 
apple; differing in color from the 
bright red Jonathan to the Brown 
Russet; with all flavors from a deli¬ 
cate sweet to the sharpest acid; and 
ripening from early summer to late 
autumn. 

The grape then was a small, sour 
fruit which grew as best it could in 


the thick forest. Now it is a large, 
luscious fruit, and is grown in a 
carefully pruned and thoroughly 
tilled vineyard. 

Man has made equally marked 
improvements in his animals by se¬ 
lecting the best as parents. For a 
long time the hen would lay only 
one setting of from ten to thirteen 

The Training eggs in a season. Then, 
of the obeying her long estab- 

Hen lished wild instincts, she 

would insist upon sitting upon these 
eggs to hatch her young. After she 
had been tamed a long time, she be¬ 
gan to lose the instinct to sit as soon 
as she had laid a nest full of eggs. 
Now we have a hen that has laid 
three hundred and fourteen eggs in a 
year, which is perhaps three hun¬ 
dred more than the wild hen laid. 

The Making of the Plant 

Plants get their food from the 
earth and air. From the earth comes 
the mineral matter, or the part 
which is left as ashes if the plant is 
burned. There are six minerals 
which are necessary to the life and 
development of all plants—phos- 


Siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


669 







&MMHMMMMMMMMMmMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMUiMHHMMMMMMMiiHHMMMUHHMMMiHMiiHiHHMiHiHMMiHMMHMmMiiiMUHMMMHMMMiMMUMMMHMiMMMHMHMHMHiMMHMM!iMMMHMHHMHUMM I 


Tropic Vegetation on the 



The Mountains of the Moon in central Africa, unlike many lofty peaks, are covered with an abundance of 
the wind. But the Mountains of the Moon, though they are twelve thousand feet above sea level, have a moist, 

..I...I.I.mini................ 


670 














Mountains of the Moon 



vegetation. Even in the tropics vegetation is usually sparse on mountain tops because of the drying effect of 
warm atmosphere. 


IIIIIIIIIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


67I 










♦ ♦ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


How Plants Break the Rocks 


8 


Here is a tree that is 
growing on a fragment of 
an old stone chapel and 
another that has split a 
rock. The upper one is 
only a sapling as yet, but 
its roots will creep down 
into tiny cracks in the 


phorus, potassium, 
calcium, iron, sul¬ 
phur, and magne¬ 
sium. From the air 
comes the part of 
the plant which 
passes into the air 
as gas when the 
plant is burned. 

The four elements 
which come from 
the air are just as 
necessary to the 
life of plants as are those which 
come from the soil. These are 
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
The nitrogen. We shall learn 

Chemistry a little later that most of 
of Growth our plants get their 

nitrogen from the soil, but the nitro¬ 
gen in the soil came originally from 
the air. For this reason we say that 



stone and by their growth 
the rock will, in time, be 
split as the one in the 
lower picture is. It is in 
this way that plants hurry 
up the cracking and split¬ 
ting up of big rocks and 
so help make soil. 


the air is the source 
of this element of 
plant food. Thus 
we see that it takes 
ten separate ele¬ 
ments to build a 
plant. All these 
elements are neces¬ 
sary for all plants. 
While only small 
amounts of some of 
these elements are 
needed, yet if only 
one were lacking the plant would 
starve to death, no matter how 
abundantly the other nine elements 
were supplied. A farmer could carry 
on his back all the ashes, for ex¬ 
ample, contained in a ton of wheat 
straw, but the straw could not be 
produced without the minerals the 
ashes contain. In this great mass of 



672 









THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 


♦V 


straw there would be no more than 
three pounds of phosphorus and less 
than a quarter of a pound of iron, 
but unless the soil contained these 
elements there would have been no 
straw produced, and of course, no 
wheat. 

The plant takes its soil food 
through its roots and its air food 
principally through its leaves. But 
before any of these food materials 
can be taken up by the roots they 
must be dissolved in the soil water. 
Only a very small fraction of the 
Why minerals of the soil is 

the ‘Plant dissolved in water at any 

Must Dnnk one time. This is na¬ 
ture’s way of taking care of the food 
of plants. The food is made solu¬ 
ble only about as rapidly as plants 
can use it. The rest of the food is 
safely locked up so that it cannot be 
washed away by rains. 

We have just learned that the air 
is the source of all nitrogen, but the 
ordinary plant cannot use nitrogen 
in a pure state as it is in the air. 
Before nitrogen can become food 
for most plants it must be made to 
unite with hydrogen to form ammo¬ 
nia, or with hydrogen and oxygen to 
form nitric acid. In one of these 
forms it is carried into the earth in 
rain water, and it is in the soil that 
most growing plants must get their 
nitrogen. We shall learn a little 
later about a great family of plants 
called the legumes or the bean, pea 
and clover family which can use this 
pure nitrogen from the air and 
later leave it in the soil for crops 
like corn and wheat. 

Nearly all soils contain enough 
magnesium, sulphur and iron to 
supply all the needs of the plants. 
Most soils contain enough calcium 
at least until after they have been 
cultivated for many years. 


M 

♦♦ 


The quantity of phosphorus and | 
nitrogen is low in most cultivated | 
soils. These are the elements which j 
Why it is first necessary to | 

Fertilizers apply in fertilizers. In | 
are Needed many soils potassium | 

must be added also; and to nearly as | 
many an addition of calcium in the | 
form of finely ground limestone or | 
air-slaked lime increases the yields | 
of grain and clover. 

Thus we are especially interested | 
in the elements of plant food which | 
are apt to be lacking in our culti- | 
vated soils. It is these which we | 
must buy in commercial fertilizers | 
or manures and apply to most of our j 
fields before they will give us sat- | 
isfactory crops of wheat, hay, pota- j 
toes, and cotton. The elements of | 
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and | 
calcium are the ones in which | 
we are especially interested. In order | 
to be successful the farmer must | 
learn about these elements and must j 
know how to take care of them in his | 
soil and where to get them when | 
their supply in his soil runs low. | 
This means that the farmer must | 
first of all study his soil. j 

Three Millers That Grind the Soil 

The earth’s surface was once solid | 
rock and was wholly barren. On it | 
neither plants nor animals could | 
live. The surface is now covered j 
with a layer of soil varying from a | 
few inches to many feet in depth. | 
Out of the soil are growing great | 
trees, tangled forests, rich pastures j 
and fields of waving grains. This | 
earth supports also millions of ani- | 
mals, both large and small. What | 
has happened to bring about all this | 
change in the fruitfulness of the | 
earth’s surface which once was so | 
barren? Where did this soil layer j 
come from, and of what was it j 

f* 
♦♦ 


673 


........mil! PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. inninumi . 1111 . 1 . H 1111111111111111111111111 !? 


made? How does it happen that 
trees and grass and crops can grow 
in this soil when they couldn’t grow 
on the rocks? 

Soil is merely the rock of the 
earth’s surface broken into fine par¬ 
ticles, mixed with a small amount of 
vegetable and animal matter. The 
rock of the earth is still being slow- 


soil, and helped still further to 
break down the rock. The soil build¬ 
ing went forward much more rap¬ 
idly after plants began to grow than 
it had before and the farther the 
soil building progressed the larger 
the plants grew. Our soils have 
been thousands and thousands of 
years in forming, and, as we have 


How Washing Wastes Soil 



A heavy rain loosens the soil on a steep slope like this one so that the bank caves in. Proper 
drainage and grading would save the soil here. 


ly broken into fine particles by the 
action of air, water, and plants. 

As soon as the rock surface had 
been acted upon by air and water, 
plants began to grow. It is true 

How Plants the y were ver y simple 
Made Earth plants and scarcely large 
By Growing enough to be seen with 

the naked eye, but they gathered 
materials from the air and used the 
substance of the powdered rock out 
of which to build their bodies. When 
these plants died, they added to the 
small beginnings of a soil, their 
bodies which helped to make the 


just said, the process is still going on. 

For agricultural purposes we 
speak of the soil as the surface layer 
and the layer underneath the surface 
soil, to the depth to which the roots 
of plants go, as the subsoil. Beneath 
the subsoil usually lies a second sub¬ 
soil extending to the rock or to that 
part of the earth’s crust which has 
not yet been made into soil. The thin 
layer of surface soil, together with 
the layer of subsoil lying directly 
beneath it, sustains the millions of 
plants and in it hordes of small ani¬ 
mals live. To keep this soil in such 


ft 


if# 


674 





THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 


♦♦ 


a condition that it will produce large 
crops and feed man abundantly and 

How Every- cheaply, is one of the 
body Lives on chief concerns of all the 
the Farms people, whether they 

live in the town or in the country. 
When the soil of a region fails to 
produce large enough crops to be 
cultivated with satisfaction and 
profit, the people of the town feel 


tary soil. A limestone soil is the 
result of the weathering or decay 
of limestone. 

There are two principal groups of 
transported soil. The bottom lands 
along the streams, and the wind 
drifted soils of the prairies of the 
western states and some of the bluff 
lands along the Mississippi and Mis¬ 
souri Rivers and along the Yellow 


An Industrious Gardener 


the effect just as fully as do the peo¬ 
ple of the country. 

Varieties of Soil 

There are two principal kinds of 
soil. One kind lies where it was 
formed and is called residual or sed¬ 
entary soil. It is a soil which has 
never traveled. It has always re¬ 
mained just where it was made. The 
other kind has been carried awav 

j 

from the place in which it was 
formed by water, wind, or moving 
ice, and is called a transported soil, 
or a soil which has traveled. 

Much more than half of the soils 
of the United States are residual, or 
sedentary, and they are of all 
grades, from very fertile to very 
poor. A limestone or a sandstone 
soil is a good example of a seden- 


River in China, form one group. | 
The glacial soils of Canada, and the | 
northern part of the Mississippi Val- j 

Corn Lands le Y represent the other | 
Built by group. Glacial soils you | 
the glaciers know were brought | 

down from the far north ages ago | 
in great fields of moving ice, called | 
glaciers. Some of the best soils of | 
the corn belt were brought out of | 
the frozen vastnesses of the North | 
into the temperate climate of I Hi- j 
nois, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and | 
Kansas by the action of glaciers. | 
Agriculturally, soils are divided | 
into clay, clay loam, loam, sandy | 
loam, fine sandy soil, coarse sandy | 
soil, fine gravel and coarse gravel. | 
The best of these soils are the loams, j 
the next best the clay loams, then | 


*♦ 


67s 









the sandy loams, and then the clay 
soils. 

Some Soils Weak, Some "Stingy" 

If a soil is very coarse as is a 
gravelly or sandy soil, it will not 
hold water well and crops will suf¬ 
fer from drought, and the air passes 
so freeiy through such a soil that the 
vegetable matter it contains is 
burned out quickly. Also the plant 
food the soil contains is carried 
away by the water which passes 
readily through the soil and flows 
out at some lower level as spring 
water. Coarse soils are easily tilled 
and are known as generous soils be¬ 
cause they give up their plant food 
readily to the plants which grow 
upon them. For this reason soils of 
this type wear out quickly and re¬ 
quire much attention on the part of 
the farmer to keep them in a good 
state of fertility. 

If the particles are very fine, as 
is the case of a clay soil, the air en¬ 
ters slowly and on that account the 
plant food it contains is not made 
readily available to plants. Water 
moves through this type of soil slow¬ 
ly. As a consequence, these soils 
are usually wet and cold at least un¬ 
til late in the spring. Fine soils are 
known as stingy soils because the 
food which they contain is with¬ 
held from the growing crops more 
tenaciously than it is in sandy or 

What Soils l° am y soils. As a re¬ 
tire suit, clay soils wear well. 

Best of All The way to make a tight 

clay soil mellow is to add plenty of 
vegetable matter, such as barnyard 
manure or green manure, and re¬ 
move the surplus water by drainage. 
Between the coarse and the fine 
clays are the loams. These soils are 
of medium texture, coarse enough to 
be easily tilled and to be reasonably 
generous, and yet fine enough to 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

keep moist and wear well, 
the loams are our best soils. 


♦.* 


Hence i 


Busy Life in the Soil 

We think of the soil as a mass of 
dead matter, but it is very much 
alive. A great many insects, bugs 
and worms live in the soil. Some of 
these, as the angle worm, improve 
the soil. There are also many other 
living organisms called bacteria, and 
fungi, in the surface soil. These are 
very important to soil fertility. 
They live for the most part on the 
vegetable and animal matter in the 
soil and cause it to decay and thus 
release the plant food this matter 
contains so that it may feed the 
growing crops. Some of these bac¬ 
teria help to make the mineral ele¬ 
ments of the soil, such as phosphor¬ 
us and potassium, soluble so that 
they may be taken up by the plant 
roots. Others of these organisms 
improve the physical condition of 
the soil by making it more friable 
and crumbly. Some bacteria, how¬ 
ever, work against the farmers’ in¬ 
terest by locking up plant food in¬ 
stead of unlocking it. These hurt- 
Bacteria ful bacteria are most 

Friends, active in soils which are 

and Enemies p QorIy drained and 

which contain little vegetable mat¬ 
ter. By adding vegetable matter, 
either as barnyard manure, or by 
plowing under a green crop upon 
which the helpful bacteria may feed 
and by proper drainage so that air 
may enter the soil and supply oxy¬ 
gen, the bacteria which are helpful 
will work actively and those which 
are hurtful will be almost entirely 
idle. 

How Plants “Talk” About the Soil 

Usually a soil that is dark in col¬ 
or, deep, and friable, or loamy is 


O 


676 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiint-5 


fertile. Brown and red soils are 
also usually productive. White or 
bluish soils are generally infertile 

Tie Plant an d difficult to cultivate. 
as a “Report"’ The plants which grow 
on a soil are, however, 
the best indicators of its value. If 
these plants are large, have coarse 
stems and large leaves, and if their 


foliage has a dark green color, it is 
safe to assume that the soil is rich. 
At least, we know that such a soil is 
rich in nitrogen and vegetable mat¬ 
ter and that it is usually also rich in 
all the other elements necessary to 
plant growth. So you see the plant 
is a kind of report card about the 
soil; it tells you what the soil has 
been doing; how good a worker it is. 

A sparse growth and foliage of a 
pale green color indicate a soil poor 
in nitrogen and vegetable matter, 


and such a soil is apt to be poor in 
other respects, too. 

The fact that legumes, such as the 
clovers, peas and the like, are grow¬ 
ing naturally on a soil indicates that 
it contains plenty of lime. The ab¬ 
sence of such plants and the pres¬ 
ence of sorrels, and sour dock, sug¬ 
gests to us that the soil is low in lime 
and that the soil is acid. 
Soils on which pines and 
chestnuts are the natural 
growths are usually infer¬ 
tile and are especially 
poor in lime. Of course, 
large*yields of such farm 
crops as wheat, corn, oats, 
clover, alfalfa and pota¬ 
toes, when grown without 
manure or fertilizer, 
prove beyond question 
that the soil is productive, 
for the time at least. 

The Chemist as a Prophet 

To learn how long a soil 
will remain productive 
under the ordinary sys- 

How Otemis- tems of cro P- 
try Foretells ping, a chem- 

the Crofts j c a 1 analysis 

must be made. This will 
tell us how much nitro¬ 
gen, phosphorus, potas¬ 
sium, calcium and other 
plant food is present. We know 
how many pounds of each of these 
are removed by the crops we grow, 
and if we know how many pounds 
of each of these elements the sur¬ 
face soil contains, it is a simple 
matter of arithmetic to compute the 
number of crops such a soil will pro¬ 
duce. It has been found by analysis 
that the surface foot of a very rich 
soil contains nitrogen enough to 
produce as many as one hundred and 
fifty crops of corn of forty bushels 


What Fertilizing Accomplishes 



“An intelligent farmer feeds his crops just as he feeds his 
live stock. He learns what each crop requires and knows 
by experience what part of the food needs of his crop his soil 
may be expected to furnish.” This illustration shows four 
panels of oats, two grown with and two without fertilizer. 
Notice that the fertilized plants are not only larger, but there 
are more of them and they have borne more grain. 




677 





3 


pictured knowledge 


8 


=3 

| each; enough phosphorus to last 
| four hundred years at the rate of 
| use which forty bushels of corn a 
| year would require; and enough 
| potash to last two thousand years. 
1 Reasonably productive soils will last 
1 only about half as long, and poor 
| soils will become exhausted tempo- 
1 rarily at least within less than a 
| generation unless helped by the 
| farmer. 

While a chemical analysis will 
| tell us accurately how much plant 
| food is contained in a soil it will not 
| tell us how much of the food is sol- 
| uble or available to plants. The 
| only way to determine this is by 
| studying the natural growth on the 
1 land, or by testing it with various 
| kinds of farm crops. 

How a Soil Becomes Poor 

A soil is nearly always more pro- 
| ductive when it is new than it is 
| after it has been cultivated for a 
| number of years. This is because the 
| soil gives up a part of its plant food, 
| such as nitrogen, potassium and 
| phosphorus, to every crop that is 
| grown upon it. Some of the plant 
| food of the surface soil is carried 
| down into the subsoil beyond the 
| reach of the plant roots by rain 
| water as it passes through the soil. 
I Mother The surface of all culti- 
| Nature as a vated soils is wasted by 
| Farmer washing and by the ac- 

| tion of the wind. It is always the 
| best part of the soil which is car- 
| ried away, leaving the poorest for 
| the farmer to cultivate. Under a 
| system of farming in which both 
| grain and straw is removed from 
| the land, nothing is being returned. 
| In a state of nature, everything that 
| the land produces goes back to the 
| soil and nothing is removed. This 
| explains why a new soil is fertile, 


8 


and also suggests the reason why un- | 
der a wasteful system of farming | 
the soil becomes less productive the | 
longer it is cultivated. No soil that | 
is not supplied with plant food from | 
some outside source, such as the | 
overflow of a stream or by being | 
fertilized by man, will remain pro- j 
ductive indefinitely. Sooner or later j 
Plain the soil will wear out g 

Lesson in unless the farmer takes j 
Subtraction care to put back into it | 

each year a considerable part of that | 
which his crops took out. Putting | 
back each year a part of the plant | 
food removed by the crop estab- g 
lishes a permanent agriculture and | 
has in mind the needs of those who | 
are to live after us, as well as of j 
those who are now on the land. 

Keeping up the Fertility 

It is always cheaper and easier to | 
keep the soil in a productive state j 
than it is to repair it, once it is worn j 
out. Attention should be given to the | 
surface washing so as to prevent the | 
waste of the soil itself, and to the | 
stock of vegetable matter and the | 
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and | 
lime in the soil. If these matters are | 
carefully considered the productive- | 
ness of the soil will not decline. 

The waste from surface washing | 
may be greatly reduced by keeping ] 
the soil covered all the year with a | 
growing crop. In the winter some | 
such crop as rye or wheat in the | 
North and winter oats in the South j 
Preventing will hold the surface and | 
Waste from largely prevent it from | 
Washing washing. In the spring | 

the green crop may be plowed un- | 
der, thus adding to the supply of | 
vegetable matter in the soil. In re- | 
gions of heavy rainfall terrace or | 
contour farming, such as is exten- | 
sively used in the Southern states, is | 

uv 


678 




^iiiiiiiiiiiiillliililiiiiiiiiiiiililiiliiiiiiiiiiiiM THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 


found to be very helpful. 

For a long time it has been known 
that the growing of the same crop on 
the land year after year will not pro¬ 
duce as good results as will the 
growing of a succession of different 
crops. Thus it has come about that 
different crops are rotated on the 


stead of growing the same crop on 
the land continuously are numerous. 
All crops do not feed in the same 
area of soil. Some feed near the 
surface as wheat and oats, for ex¬ 
ample, and others in the deeper lay¬ 
ers of the soil as clover, alfalfa and 
corn. Some crops require more of 


Seven Furrows at Once 


“The invention of the reaper by a Virginia blacksmith and farmer, Cyrus H. McCormick, marked 
the beginning of the extensive use of machinery on the farm. The farmer, once a slave to hand 
labor, is now the operator of large machinery. Before the invention of these machines, it required 
three hours of a man’s time to produce a bushel of wheat. Now it requires only ten minutes.” 

Compare this gasoline shown below. At best the 

traction-engine, the most little one-horse plow only 

modern device for plowing, scraped the upper layers of 

with the wooden plow of soil, while the traction-en- 

o u r Puritan forefathers, _ .« gine plow leaves seven 

smooth, deep furrows. 


same land from sea¬ 
son to season. In¬ 
stead of growing corn on one field 
year after year, and wheat on an¬ 
other, a system is devised in which 
these crops will follow each other in 
. something like this or- 

of Crofr der: Corn, oats, clover, 

Rotation timothy and wheat; or 

corn, oats, clover, potatoes, and 
wheat; or cotton, oats, and cowpeas; 
or corn, oats, and clover. The ad¬ 
vantages of rotating the crops in¬ 


certain kinds of 
plant food than 
others; for example, the grains use 
more phosphorus and nitrogen than 
do the grasses. Potatoes and to¬ 
bacco need more potassium than is 
required by most other crops. Clo¬ 
vers, alfalfa and other legumes need 
much lime. It is easier to maintain 
a balance in the food supply of the 
soil by judicious rotation than by 
constantly growing one crop. 

Some crops prepare for others, es 






679 










PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


| clover and cowpeas which leave the 
J land mellow and in good condition 
| for grain crops, potatoes or tobacco. 
| Also the nitrogen which the clover 
| and cowpeas have gathered from the 
| air as well as the mineral elements 
| gathered from the subsoil, are very 
| helpful in feeding the succeeding 
| crop. Some crops are cleansing and 
| remove seeds, and by rotation, plant 
| diseases and insect pests are held in 
| check. 

The vegetable matter in cultivated 
| soils is quickly burned out by the 
| introduction of air through tillage. 
| Soils low in this material have little 
| life in them because there is little 
| upon which the bacteria may feed. 

I How Air The S °T becomes stiff 

| Bums TJ§ and hard, and bakes 

| the Soil after a rain. The min- 

| eral plant food contained in such a 
| soil is locked up from the plants, 
| and crops growing on such soils suf- 
| fer needlessly during a season of 
| drought. The supply of vegetable 
| matter may be kept up by plowing 
| under some green crop, such as rye, 
| turnips, sweet clover, red clover or 
| cowpeas every three or four years, or 
| by applying barnyard manure at the 
| rate of from five to six tons to the 
| acre once every four or five years. 

Feeding the Crops 

The intelligent farmer feeds his 
| crops just as he feeds his live stock. 
| He learns what each crop requires 
| and knows by experience what part 
| of the food needs of his crops his soil 
| may be expected to furnish. The 
| remainder he must furnish either in 
| barnyard manure or in chemical 
| fertilizer, commonly called commer- 
| cial fertilizers. 

Man learned to use barnyard ma-. 
| nure long before Christ was born 
1 and the ancient farmers were well 


advanced in their understanding of g 
the value of manure and the methods | 

Fertilizers of preserving and apply- j 
Used by the ing it. Barnyard ma- g 
s .Ancients nure, in addition to sup- | 

plying vegetable matter to the soil, | 
furnishes the elements of food which | 
the plants require for growth and | 
development such as nitrogen, phos- | 
phorus, potassium, and lime. A ton | 
of manure from some kinds of farm | 
animals is more valuable than from j 
others. The manure from poultry is | 
the most valuable of any, ton for ton, | 
that from swine and sheep is about | 

Farm Wealth of equal value, and | 
in the stands next in the order | 

Barnyard Q f wor U^ and that | 

from horses is better than that made | 
from cattle. The manure made from | 
animals fed on grains or meal, espe- | 
daily those meals rich in nitrogen | 
such as cottonseed meal, linseed j 
meal and bran, is much more valu- | 
able than the manure from similar | 
animals fed on coarse feeds, such as | 
grass, hay, and fodder. Young ani- j 
mals produce manure of less value | 
than do grown animals when the g 
feed is the same, because the growing | 
animal takes more out of the feed to | 
nourish its body and therefore leaves | 
less in the manure to nourish plants. | 
About three-fourths of all the food | 
which the plant takes out of the soil | 
is to be found in the manure and only | 
about a fourth is usually retained by j 
the animal. Unfortunately, how- j 
ever, a considerable part of the plant | 
food left in manure is lost through | 

<Dont Waste exposure of the manure | 
This Soil to rains and by careless- | 
Food ness in handling it. Ma- 1 

nure should, whenever possible, be | 
hauled to the field while it is fresh. 1 
If it is necessary to keep it for any | 
length of time it should be protected | 
against rains and sunshine. A ma- 1 






68o 


v 

*♦ 


THE NEW LIFE 

nure spreader will save much hand 
labor and enable the farmer to use 
his manure to better advantage than 
if it is spread by hand. 

It was the German chemist Liebig 
who, about the middle of the last 
century, discovered how to feed 
plants with chemicals. Until that 
time we only knew how to feed them 
with plant and animal products. 
Now the farmers of all European 


ON THE FARM 

off the west coast of Africa. Another 
nitrogenous fertilizer is obtained as a 
by-product of the manufacture of 
gas and coke and is called sulphate 
of ammonia. Another important 
kind is nitrate of soda obtained from 
the rainless regions of Chile. 

The two principal sources of 
phosphatic fertilizers are bone meal 
from the packing houses, and phos¬ 
phate rock. The principal deposits 




Where Guano Conies From 



Thousands of sea-birds have visited the Guano Islands as far back as the records of mankind go. 
They lay their eggs and hatch their young there, and, incidentally, leave enough nitrogenous waste 
in their temporary homes to furnish fertilizer to farmers all over the world. The fertilizer is called 
guano, from the islands where it is gathered. 


| countries and of the eastern and 
| southern United States use commer- 
| cial fertilizers very extensively. The 

| How Birds four elements of plant 
| and Chemists food which are sold in 
| Feed the Sod commercial fertilizers 

| are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium 
| and calcium. 

Some nitrogenous fertilizers are 
| derived from animal sources, as pack- 
| ing house products like dried blood, 
| and tankage, and a fertilizer called 
| guano, which is the excrement of sea 
I fowls and is obtained from islands 


of phosphate rock of the world are in | 
the Carolinas, Florida, Tennessee, | 
Georgia and Arkansas. | 

The principal source of potash is | 
the Stassfurt mines of Germany j 
where it is believed that there is | 
enough potash to last the world for | 
five thousand years. Wood ashes are | 
also used to some extent as a source | 
of potash for plants. j 

Calcium fertilizers are obtained j 
from the limestone rock and are in | 
the form of finely ground rock, or | 
of burned lime, air-slaked. 


t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiif^ 




PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦♦♦ 


How to Use Commercial Fertilizers 

Only a part of the food required 
| by plants is usually given in the fer- 
j tilizer, the soil being relied upon to 
| supply the rest. Thus, for example, 
| a crop of thirty bushels of wheat to 
| the acre, including the straw, would 
| consume about forty-eight pounds of 
| nitrogen, nine pounds of phosphorus, 
| twenty-four pounds of potassium and 

I How Much six pounds of calcium. 
| the Wheat Most wheat soils in 
"Eats America may be relied 

| upon to furnish all the potash re- 
| quired. If clover has immediately 
| preceded wheat in the rotation, a 
| part of the nitrogen gathered from 
| air by the clover and left in the soil 
[ in its roots and stubble will be avail- 
| able to the wheat plants. Then, the 
| soil will supply a part of the nitro- 
| gen required so that only from four 
| to ten pounds of nitrogen would need 
| to be given in the form of a ferti- 
| lizer. Usually only from one-half 
| to two-thirds of the phosphorus is 
| supplied in that form. 

The ordinary commercial fertili- 
| zer consists of from only about one- 
| tenth to one-third plant food. The 
| rest of the material is of no agricul- 
| tural value and is called a filler. A 
| very common way of making up 
| commercial fertilizers is to have 
| them contain two per cent of nitro- 
| gen, eight per cent of phosphoric 
| acid, and two per cent of potash. 
| Such a fertilizer would be one-eighth 
| plant food and seven-eighths filler. 
| The amount of commercial fertilizer 
| applied varies from less than a hun- 
| dred pounds to more than a thou- 
| sand pounds to the acre, but from 
| one hundred and fifty to three hun- 
| dred pounds an acre is the usual 
| amount. 

Ground limestone is applied at the 
1 rate of about two tons to the acre and 


air-slaked lime at the rate of about 
two hundred pounds, or about 
twenty-five bushels an acre. 

The Control of Water in the Soil 

All plants require large amounts 
of water for their growth, but only a 
few crops, such as rice, thrive in soil 
filled with water. Saturated soils are 
cold, clammy and unfit for the pro¬ 
duction of ordinary farm crops. The 
Wh v So,Is remedy is to remove the 
Are surplus water by drain- 

Dramed a g e SQ ^at the ] anc l may 

be plowed and planted in proper sea¬ 
son and so that the air may enter the 
soil to unlock plant food and to help 
feed the plants. Wet soils are made 
dry by surface ditches or by tiles or 
burnt clay tubes, laid from two to 
four feet beneath the surface and 
having an outlet into a gully or 
stream below. The tubes or tile are 
a foot in length and the water enters 
at the joints where two tiles join. Sur¬ 
face drainage is wasteful of land and 
tends to surface washing. Tile drain¬ 
age is costly and on clay soils re¬ 
moves the water slowly. 

It is more often true that there is 
not enough water to supply the needs 
of the growing crops than that there 
is too much. The remedy is to ar¬ 
range for a system of irrigation or to 
practice dry farming. Applying 
water artificially or irrigating the 
crops is one very common remedy 

The Practice f° r the lack of moisture 
of in the soil. Irrigation 

Irrigation hag been practiced 

since 

ancient times and some of the irriga¬ 
tion ditches of ancient Egypt are still 
in use. Water resulting from the 
melting of snow on the mountains is 
brought long distances in ditches and 
spread out on the surface of the field 
where the crops are growing. In 
other cases water is pumped from 


a 


682 


tflniiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiminiiniiriiiiiiiiiiiiM 




^iiiii!iniii(iii[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiniiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 

Draining a Clay Soil 

/ 


“Wet soils are made dry by surface ditches or by tiles or burnt clay tubes, laid from two to four 
feet beneath the surface and having an outlet into a gully or stream below. The tubes or tile are 
a foot in length and the water enters at the joints where two tiles join. Surface drainage is wasteful 
of land and tends to surface washing. Tile draining is costly and on clay soils removes the water 
slowly.” 


| the eartli and 
| spread over the 
| fields near the wells 
| or carried in 
| ditches or pipes to 
| the regions where 
| the crops are 
| grown. 

In regions of de- 
| ficient rainfall in 
| which water for ir- 
| rigation is not 
| available, systems 
| of dry farming are practiced suc- 
| cessfully. A rainfall of less than 
| thirty inches a year usually requires 
| some irrigation or a special type of 
| farming. In China, wheat has long 
| been grown successfully with less 
1 than twenty inches of rainfall. In 
| the Columbia River basin of the 
| United States, wheat farming is suc¬ 


cessfully conducted 
under a rainfall of 
ten or twelve inches 
a year. Dry farm¬ 
ing gives attention 
to ge tt i n g all the 
rain water into the 
soil by keeping the 
surface cultivated 
and rough so that 
there will be little 
or no surface run¬ 
off. It also gives 
attention to the holding of the mois¬ 
ture in the soil and to the prevent¬ 
ing of waste by evaporation. This 
is accomplished by surface tillage. 
Tillage also keeps down weeds, 
which, if left to grow, would rob the 
soil of its moisture. In dry farming, 
crops such as wheat, the sorghums, 
Sudan grass and millet, are grown 


A Branch Drain Entering the Main 
Tile Line 


Where there is a main tile line and sev¬ 
eral branches, the branch lines should slope 
down to meet the larger, main drainage 
tube. If they are both on the same level, 
silt from the main line will collect at the 
mouth of the branch tile and stop it up. 








683 











^Illllllll!ll!l!ll!lll!lllll!ll!ll!llll!illllll!ll!llllllllllllllll!in!lllllllllll!ll!lll! PICTURED KNOWLEDGE IlllllltlllllllllllllUllllllllllllllllllllllllllUllllIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUII!*^ 


because they require less water than 
do some other crops like corn, alfal¬ 
fa and clover. In some cases the 
practice is followed of growing a 
crop only one year in two, cultivat¬ 
ing the land carefully both years to 
save moisture. This is a very old 

Dry 


through the changes in the methods 
of growing wheat. At first the wild 
berries were gathered by hand for 
food and later a few seeds were sown 
on unprepared soil. Afterward the 
soil was plowed for wheat with a 
croQked stick drawn by women. The 

Farming 



This land is lying fallow during the winter. It 
moisture possible. Land is often cultivated in th 

| system and is known as “summer 
| fallow,” or letting the land lie fallow 
| every other year as was frequently 
| recommended in the writings on 
| agriculture in Biblical times. 

Some of Our Principal Crops 

Wheat is the most important food 
| grain of the great Caucasian race 
| and is one of our oldest domesticated 
[ plants. Wheat is still growing wild 
| in Palestine although it was culti- 
| vated in Egypt before the Pyramids 
| were built and in China nearly three 
| thousand years before Christ was 
| born. 

Most of the progress of the agri- 
| culture of the world may be traced 

^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


is plowed in deep ridges to catch and hold all the 
is way in regions having meager rainfall. 

seeds were sown by hand until within | 
a generation ago. In the early days | 
the seeds were covered by driving | 
Ancient cattle over the field. | 

History For a long time the grain | 

of Wheat was ] iarves ted by pulling | 

up the plants or by breaking off the | 
heads by hand. Later a stone sickle | 
which half cut and half broke the | 
straw was used as a reaper. Then | 
came the iron sickle which marked a | 
great advance and which is still in | 
use in many parts of the world. The | 
Romans invented the cradle which j 
was used in this country until after | 
1850. . | 

The invention of the reaper by a | 
Virginia blacksmith and farmer, Cy- J 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 









^mjiimimmuumiurai . . . . THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM mam . in . . . gnu. mg ... mmmX 

Varieties of Wheat I 



“Wheat is the most important food grain of the great Caucasian race, and is one of our oldest 
domesticated plants. Most of the progress of the agriculture of the world may be traced through 
changes in the methods of growing wheat.” 

Seven different kinds of wheat are shown here. From left to right, they are: Polish wheat, 
Durum wheat, hard spring wheat, hard winter wheat, soft winter wheat, Alaska and club wheat. 


rus H. McCormick marked the be¬ 
ginning of the extensive use of 
machinery on the farm. The im¬ 
provements of the plow and of the 
A Bushel thresher kept pace with 
of Wheat in the changes in harvest- 
Ten Minutes ] n g. machinery so that 

the farmer, once a slave to hand 
labor, is now the operator of large 
machinery. Before the invention of 
these labor-saving machines, it re¬ 
quired three hours of man’s time to 
produce a bushel of wheat. Now it 
requires only ten minutes. 

Varieties of Wheat 

There are eight classes of wheat. 
Common wheat constitutes nine- 
tenths of the wheat of the United 
States. Durum wheat is used for 


making macaroni. Speltz is not 
grown in the United States, but it is 
grown in Southern Europe, where it 
is used as feed for live stock. Emmer 
is grown in the northern Great 

Plains states and is used for stock 
feed. Club wheat yields heavily, 
and is especially adapted to the Pa¬ 
cific Coast. Poulard wheat is not 
Geography grown in the United 

of States, but is grown in 

Wheat the countries bordering 

the Mediterranean Sea, where it is 
used in the manufacture of maca¬ 
roni, and when mixed with common 
wheat, is made into flour for bread. 
Polish wheat is grown chiefly in 
Russia and in the countries border¬ 
ing on the Mediterranean Sea, and 
is used in the manufacture of mac- 




685 




























Sickle 


a ro n i, spa¬ 
ghetti, and 
similar prod¬ 
ucts. Einkorn 
is a primitive 
type of wheat, 
and is of no 
importance. 

Common 
wheat is di- 
vided into 
winter wheat 
and spring 
wheat. Win¬ 
ter wheat is 

grown in the temperate regions of 
the world, and is sown in the fall 
and harvested the following June or 
July. It constitutes more than two- 
thirds of the wheat grown in the 
United States. The winter wheats 
are divided into hard and soft types. 
The hard winter wheats, such as the 
Turkey and Kharkof, both of which 
came from Russia, are grown prin¬ 
cipally in Kansas, Nebraska and 
Colorado and, like the hard spring 
types, make a splendid baking flour. 
The soft wheats, such as the Fulcas- 
ter, Fultz and Zimmerman produce a 
flour especially desirable for making 
biscuits, cakes, pies and the like. 

Spring wheat is adapted to the 
colder regions, and is sown in the 
spring and harvested in August. The 
principal spring wheat types in the 
United States are the Fife wheats 
and the Bluestem, which furnish the 
hard spring wheat from which such 
excellent bread flour is made, and 
the Durum wheat, which produces a 
flour used chiefly in making maca¬ 
roni. 

How Rice is Grown 

More than half the people of the 
world live principally upon rice. Rice 
is, therefore, the principal food of 
more people than use all the other 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 
Early Tools for Harvesting Wheat—The 


8 


Sickle and the Cradle 


grains com¬ 
bined. 11 is 



Cradle 


After the stone sickle, “came the iron sickle, which 
marked a great advance and is still in use in many 
parts of the world. The Romans invented the cradle, 
which was used in this country until after 1850.” 


grown prin¬ 
cipally in 
China, Japan, 
India and Af¬ 
rica, although 
it is becoming 
a n important 
crop in the 
warm, low- 
lying parts of 
the United 
States, partic- 
u1 a r1y in 
Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas. 

There are two classes of rice, the 
upland and lowland. The upland 
class is grown very much as are the 
Upland other grains, wheat and 
and oats. Lowland rice, the 

Lowland Rice more important variety, 

unlike most other agricultural plants, 
requires that the soil be saturated 
and covered with water during most 
of the growing period. 

The field should be level, so that 
when it is flooded the water may be 
at the same depth over all parts. 
Each field is surrounded by a levee 
or bank a foot or more high, to hold 
the water. In the United States, the 
land is plowed in preparation for 
rice, very much as for wheat, and it 
is seeded at the rate of from one and 
one-half to three bushels per acre at 
some time from March to May. The 
field is flooded at once, if necessary, 
to germinate the seed. If not, the 
field is flooded when the plants are 
about seven inches high, and is kept 
covered with water to a depth of 
from four to six inches, until the 
crop is nearly ripe. At that time the 
water is drained off, so that the rice 
may ripen and the land may become 
firm enough to permit the harvest¬ 
ing of the grain with a machine. 


$ 




686 

*> » 









THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 


8 


In Japan and China the land is 
flooded before the soil is prepared. 
It is then dug by hand twice to a 
depth of nearly a foot. Instead of 
sowing the seeds in the field where 
the plants are to grow, the seeds are 
sown in a plant bed, and later each 
plant is pulled and transplanted to 
the field by hand. The plants are 
set in rows about ten inches apart. 


and the grain is stripped from the 
stalk or threshed with a flail. 

Cotton—Its Culture 

The cotton plant furnishes the 
principal fibre used in making cloth. 
Other fibres are used for this pur¬ 
pose, such as the wool of sheep and 
goats, the fibres of hemp and flax 
plants, and the thread spun by the 


A Field of Kafir Corn 



Kafir corn is a tropical and semi-tropical plant, a relative of field corn and sorghum. In Africa 
and India it is used like millet, as a grain food, but in this country it is chiefly a forage and ensilage 
crop. 


This means between eighty thousand 
to one hundred thousand plants 
must be set on each acre. Women 

Setting Out d ° m0st ° f the WOrk ° f 
Rice in the transplanting. What 

Orient would our American 

women think if they had to trans¬ 
plant all our wheat and oat plants, 
and if they were obliged to stand 
with mud and water half knee-deep 
while doing this work, as do the 
Oriental women in transplanting 
rice? In Japan the ripe grain is 
harvested with a hand sickle, such 
as was used before the time of Christ, 


silk worm to shield itself while it 
changes into a butterfly. Cotton is 
cheaper than any of these other 
fibres, and is adapted to a greater 
variety of uses. 

Cotton cloth serves the rich and 
the poor equally well. Out of cotton 
the coarse sail cloth and tarpaulins 
are made, as well as the fabrics 
which we wear and which adorn our 
homes. 

Gun cotton, the deadly explosive, 
and absorbent cotton, so helpful in 
healing wounds, are both made from 
cotton. The oil extracted from the 




♦v 


687 





t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii> PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 



cotton seed is valuable as a food, and 
is widely used as a substitute for 

So Many ° live oil and Iard - Cot - 

Things Come tonseed meal, the meat 
From Cotton 0 f ^.| ie seec i after the oil 

is extracted, is a valuable stock feed, 
and is export¬ 


ed extensively 
to Europe. It 
is also used in 
this country 
as an impor¬ 
tant feed and 
as a fertilizer. 

Cotton is the 
principal crop 
of the south¬ 
ern states, and 
is our leading 
article of ex¬ 
po rt to for¬ 
eign coun- 
tries. It 
brings to the 
United States 
more money 
than is de- 
rived from 
the sale of any 
other agricul¬ 
tural product. 

The United 
States pro¬ 
duces nearly 
two-thirds of 
the cotton of 
the world, Egypt about one-fifth, 
and India about one-eighth. The 
cotton plant is a native of the tropics, 
and is supposed to have originated 
both in India and in America. 

The two classes of common cotton 
are the short staple and the long 
staple. Cotton, whose fibre is not 
more than one and one-fourth inches 
long is classed as short staple, and 
represents the bulk of our product. 
Long staple cotton brings a high 


The Big Export Crop 


price, and is used in making laces 
and the finest cotton cloths. 

Very Interesting Things About the Seeds 

Much progress has been made in 
cotton production, through the use of 
carefully selected seed. Early ma¬ 
turity is se¬ 


“The two classes of common cotton are the short staple 
and the long staple. Cotton whose fiber is not more than 
one and one-fourth inches long is classed as short staple, 
and represents the bulk of our product. Long staple cot¬ 
ton brings a high price and is used in making laces and 
the finest cotton clothes.” 


cured by 
choosing seed 
from plants 
with short 
joints; pro¬ 
ductiveness is 
increased by 
selecting seed 
from bolls 
with five in¬ 
stead of four 
locks; bolls 
which open 
exces sively 
waste the cot¬ 
ton in storms, 
while those 
which open 
sparingly are 
difficult to 
pick. Inter¬ 
mediate open- 
i n g tendency 
is to be sought 
in selecting 
seed. Earli¬ 
ness and long 
staple are not 
secured in the 
same plant. Large seeds indicate a 
small percentage of lint. 

The cotton boll weevil, an insect 
which lives in the squares or young 
bolls of the cotton plant and causes 
them to fall before they become 
Howto grown, is the most de- 

Get ‘Rid structive insect to South- 
ofthe Weevil ern agriculture. Early 

maturing varieties of cotton, clean 
culture, and the thorough cleansing 
of the field after the cotton has been 


♦♦ 


i*: 


688 




«viiHiiuiiuiiHiiiiiii!iiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiii!uiiiiuiiiiiiiJUiiiiiiiuin!iiii THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM iiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiniininniiiiiiniinnniiniiiiiiiriiiiiiimiJJ 

sc EE 

| Little Nitrogen Factories 


“The legumes help to make our soils more productive by adding nitrogen gathered from the air. 
It is true the legumes do not take the nitrogen directly from the air, but do so through little 
creatures called bacteria, which live on their roots. These bacteria make protein and store it in 
their own bodies. These bodies are easily seen if we examine the roots of cowpeas, clover or alfalfa 
plants. They are in the form of little knots called nodules or tubercles attached to the roots.” 


| picked, including the burning of all 
| stalks, and dead bolls, will destroy 
| most of the weevils, and many of the 
| immature insects, and will hold this 
| pest in check.* 

Here is the Legume Family 

One of the most important as well 
| as the most interesting groups of 
| plants is the legume family, of which 
| clover, peanuts, peas and beans are 
| familiar examples. No animal, as 
| you learn in our article on foods, can 
| grow without protein. A part of the 
I To Repair animal body is worn out 
| Our "Body during the activities of 
| H° uses the day, and must be re- 

| paired while the body is at rest at 
| night. Without protein the repair 


♦The subject of corn and its culture has been 
fully dealt with in a separate article. 


could not be made and all animals | 
would soon die. Poultry could not | 
lay eggs without protein being sup- | 
plied in their feed, for the white of | 
egg is almost pure protein. Cows j 
could not give milk without protein, | 
for the curd of milk contains much | 
protein. We rely principally upon j 
the legumes for protein, for both | 
man and beast. Beans, peas, lentils, | 
and peanuts for man and the clovers, j 
alfalfa, cowpeas and soy beans for | 
animals. j 

The legumes also help to make our j 
soils more productive by adding ni- | 
trogen. This nitrogen they have | 
gathered from the air. No other ag- | 
ricultural plants have the power to | 
feed upon the nitrogen of the air. | 
Corn, wheat, cotton, and all the j 
grasses get their nitrogen from the | 


8 


689 










giiiiiiiiiilililiM PICTUjRED KNOWLEDGE iluiullii^ 


soil, although their leaves are con¬ 
stantly bathed in air, which is four- 
The Little fifths nitrogen It is true 
Nitrogen the legumes do not 

Factories take nitrogen di¬ 

rectly from the air, but do so through 
little creatures 
called bacteria, 
which live on their 
roots. These bac¬ 
teria feed upon the 
nitrogen of the air, 
and combine it 
with the other ele¬ 
ments required to 
make protein, and 
to store the protein 
in their own bodies. 

These bodies are 
easily seen if we 
examine the roots 
of cowpeas, clover, 
or alfalfa plants. 

They are in the 
form of little knots 
called nodules or 
tubercles attached 
to the roots. On 
the clover and al¬ 
falfa plants the no¬ 
dules resemble 
clover seed. On 
the cowpea and 
soybean they are as 
large as a pea or 
bean and in some 
cases are half an 
inch in diameter. 

When these no¬ 
dules have become fully grown they 
produce very little seeds called spores 
and die. The spores are so small 
that they cannot be seen except with 
the aid of a microscope. After the 
tubercles die, they still cling to the 
roots of the legumes, and the leg¬ 
umes feed upon the protein and 
other materials these bodies contain, 


storing in the roots, stems, leaves 
and seeds the materials which were 
gathered by the tubercles. The 
spores or seeds become scattered 
through the soil to produce tuber¬ 
cles on the roots of other clover or 

cowpea plants. 
Some soils have to 
b e inoculated o r 
seeded with these 
spores before leg¬ 
umes like alfalfa or 
red clover will 
thrive on them. 
Legumes do not 
thrive on most soils 
without tubercles 
because they can¬ 
not get all the ni¬ 
trogen they need 
without their help. 
A soil is inoculated 
by sowing upon it 
three or four hun¬ 
dred pounds of 
fresh soil from a 
field w h i c h is al¬ 
ready supplied 
with the spores, 
and harrowing the 
surface promptly to 
cover the spores so 
they will not be 
killed by drying or 
by the action of 
sunlight. These 
organisms do not 
thrive well in soils 
which are poor in 
lime. This explains in part why leg¬ 
umes are so partial to soils rich in 
lime and why an application of 
ground limestone to the soil which 
has been cropped for many years 
may make it possible to grow red 
clover or alfalfa when it had failed 
to grow before. 

All things considered, the clovers 


An Alfalfa Plant 



have. One sowing under the most favorable 
conditions will last a lifetime and from three 
to six crops may be cut each year.” This 
alfalfa plant is nine years old ^nd its roots 
are over nine feet long. It is characteristic 
of alfalfa to go deep into the soil for its 
nourishment.” 


♦V 


l« 


69O 






tjii!iiiiiii!ii!i!iiiiii[iii[iiiiiii[iiiiiiii!i[|[i(iiiiin THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinm^ 

| A Field of Clover Ready to Cut 1 



“The clovers are the most important group of legumes. The principal kind is the red clover, a 
plant which has not been domesticated more than three centuries. The plant lives two years, or is 
what we term a biennial, and fills a most important place in the crop rotation of the regions of the 
United States north of the Ohio River and west of the Missouri River.” 


| are the most important group of the 
| legumes and comprise a number of 
| kinds adapted to widely different 
| conditions of soil and climate. The 
| principal kind is the red clover, a 
| plant which has not been domesti- 
| cated more than three centuries. The 
| plant lives two years or is what we 
| term a biennial, and fills a most im- 
| Yhe portant place in the crop 

| ‘Different rotation of the regions 

| Clovers of the United States 

| north of the Ohio River and west of 
[ the Missouri River. It is also very 
| widely grown in the temperate re- 
| gions of Europe and Asia. Other 
| important clovers adapted to temper- 
| ate climates are white clover, and 
| sweet clover. Those adapted to the 
| warm climate of the South are Japan 
| clover and burr clover. 

By far the most productive legume 
| is alfalfa. The hay it produces is 
| the best we have. One sowing un- 
| der the most favorable conditions 
| will last a lifetime and from three to 
| six crops may be cut each year. Ex¬ 


cept for the fact that it does not j 
thrive well on many soils it would j 
be by far. the most valuable of all | 

Why Alfalfa our legumes. But we are | 
Is So rapidly learning how to j 

Valuable grow this most valuable | 

plant in many regions where it has | 
hitherto failed so it may become j 
even more widely used than red clo- | 
ver. No greater service can be ren- I 
dered the agriculture of any com- | 
munity than to discover how to | 
grow alfalfa in that community. | 
Soils upon which alfalfa has not | 
been grown usually need inocula- | 
tion. If they have been in culti- j 
vation for many years a liberal | 
application of barnyard manure | 
plowed under a few months before | 
alfalfa is sown will always be help- | 
ful and in most cases will be neces- | 
sary. If red clover does not thrive | 
on such a soil, a ton or more of | 
ground limestone applied with the | 
manure may be the means of secur- | 
ing and holding an alfalfa stand. It | 
is often desirable to precede alfalfa | 


♦♦ 


♦♦ 


691 












PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


8 


with a crop of sweet clover and plow 
the sweet clover crop under while it 
is yet green. The bacteria or organ¬ 
isms which cause the nodules to 
grow on the roots of sweet clover are 
supposed to be closely related to 
those which grow on alfalfa and this 
is one way of inoculating the soil for 
alfalfa. The land should be plowed 
in the spring to a good depth, but 
not much deeper than usual, and 

How to Grow should be cultivated on 
and Handle the surface often enough 
Alfalfa k ee p down the weeds 

until the middle of August or early 
in September when the alfalfa seed 
should be sown at the rate of fifteen 
or twenty pounds to an acre and 
covered lightly with a smoothing 
harrow. Alfalfa should not be cut 
or pastured the fall it is sown unless 
the growth is exceptionally vigorous 


and then cut it very high. Avoid 
cutting the following year before the 
plants are one-third or one-half in 
bloom. Early cutting is very hurt¬ 
ful to alfalfa, especially before the 
plants are well established, and 

greatly increases the chances of los¬ 
ing a stand. 

Some of the other important 

members of the legume family are 

Soybeans the soy bean which is 

Cowfeas very widely used in 

Peanuts Japan and China and 

India as a human food, and which 
is increasing in importance in this 
country as a stock food; the cow- 
pea, one of the most valuable plants 
grown in the South; and the peanut, 
also a plant of great importance in 
southern agriculture. The two last- 
named legumes are used as food for 
both man and beast. 


Animal Life on the Farm 


Man is the only animal that has 
tamed many plants and animals and 
made them help him. Of course, it 
was a long time ago when he first 
began to select and tame those plants 
and animals which could best serve 
his needs. At first the benefits were 
slight because man had not yet 
learned much about the animals and 
plants. 

The people who early learned how 
to tame the wild animals of the for- 
How Man ests an d to make them 
Got His Farm help carry the loads and 
Animals till the soil and furnish 

meat and clothing were the ones who 
made the most rapid progress. 

The Indians of America had 
tamed but one animal, the dog, when 
Columbus discovered this country, 
and that perhaps is one reason why 
they had not become civilized be¬ 
yond the fishing and hunting stage 


of existence. As soon as the white 
man of Europe settled here he began 
to raise crops and to build towns. He 
had the help of horses, cows, sheep, 
pigs, chickens, and geese, which he 
had brought with him. He did not 
have any turkeys for he did not 
know about them until he came to 
America where he found them run¬ 
ning wild. The Indian had known 
of the turkey for a long time but he 
had not taken the trouble to tame it. 

The principal animals which man 
uses are horses, cattle, sheep, swine, 
carabao or water buffalo, elephants, 
A camels, dogs, reindeer, 

Perfect chickens, ducks, geese, 

Menagerie! turkeys> 

guineas, honey 
bees, and silk worms. In the United 
States we use all those named ex¬ 
cept the elephant, camel, and silk 
worm. The carabao is used in the 
Philippine Islands and the reindeer 


♦♦♦ 

♦V 




692 




§.*■**».... THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM ........ ill. . . . . ... 


Little Porkers 



| in Alaska. But the animals of prin- 
| cipal importance to us are horses, 
| cattle, swine, sheep, and chickens. 
| These we call farm animals. They 
| have been domesticated so long and 
| have become so used to living with 
| man that they have lost their wild 
| instincts and are now dependent up- 
| on man for food, shelter, and pro- 
| tection. If they were turned out into 
| a wild forest and forced to shift for 
| themselves they would hardly know 
| how to get along. Now the farmer 
| grows many crops especially to feed 
| to his stock. He builds houses to 
| shelter them from the storms and he 
| guards them against the attacks of 
| their enemies, as his chickens against 
| hawks and his sheep against wolves. 

Horses help to raise the crops and 
| to market such of them as are sold. 
| It is true that the horses eat a part of 
| what they have helped to raise, yet 
| only a small part. Some of the grain 
I Good which the horses helped 

| Friends With to raise is fed to hogs 
| Four Feet and f-p e y turn give us 

| pork and bacon and ham. Another 
| part may be fed to cattle in return 
| for which we get beef, and milk, 


ft 


and butter, and leather. Sheep may j 
take a part of the feed and give us | 
back mutton for our table and wool j 
for clothing and carpets. Fowls de- | 
pend upon us for much of their food | 
and give in return eggs and meat, j 
and feathers for pillows and for or- | 
naments. | 

Much of the material which these j 
farm animals eat is so dry and hard | 
and coarse that we would not relish 1 
it as food and much of it we could | 
not eat. The grasses of the pasture | 
for example, furnish splendid nour- | 
ishment for all kinds of farm ani- | 
mals but we would not relish it as | 
food for ourselves. Poultry and j 
swine eat a great many insects, and j 
sheep and cattle feed upon a great j 
many kinds of weeds. All farm ani- | 
mals relish bran but we insist upon | 
eating white bread. Corn is the | 
only important feed for stock which | 
might also be used generally as food | 
for man, but most people prefer | 
wheat bread to corn bread. So for 1 

=3 

the most part, farm animals are used j 
to change materials of low grade | 
like grass, hay, and bran into prod- | 
ucts of very high grade like beef, | 

|||||||l|||||||||l||||||||||||||||||||!lllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllll!ll!ll[llllll!lllllllllllllll!llllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllill!lll*'* 


/ 


693 





^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiin 


milk, bacon, butter and eggs. 

It takes many pounds of these low 
grade materials to make a pound of 
such valuable products. Usually 
from six to ten pounds of grain and 
hay are required to make a pound 

Changing Coarse, Dry 


is only the digested portion which 
they can use. Then a part of that 
which is digested is used for keep¬ 
ing the body warm, in pumping the 
blood, in breathing, in walking 
about, in chewing and digesting the 

Grass into Juicy Beef 



"Much of the material which farm animals eat is so dry and hard and coarse that we would' not 
relish it as food, and much of it we could not eat. For the most part, farm animals are used to 
change materials of low grade like grass, hay and bran into products of very high grade like beef, 
milk and eggs. Usually from six to ten pounds of grain and hay are required to make a pound of 
gain in a beef animal.” 


of gain in a beef animal. A pig will 
gain a pound on from three to six 
pounds of grain. One pound of 
grain in addition to roughage will 
produce two or three pounds of 
milk, and from four to five pounds 
of grain and packing house by- 
Changing products will produce a 

Grass pound of eggs. In ad- 

Into Meat dition to greatly refining 

the materials which they consume, 
farm animals greatly concentrate 
them. That is, a pound of any of 
these animal products is much more 
valuable as food for man than is an 
equal weight of the original ma¬ 
terial from which it was made. 

It is also true that these animals 
do not use all the materials they eat 
in making the products which we 
keep them to make. Only about half 
the feed they eat is digested and it 


feed, thus leaving less than a | 
quarter of what was eaten in many | 
cases to be used in making meat, | 
wool, milk, eggs, or feathers. 

Improving the Breeds of Animals 

After man had kept these animals | 
a long time they began to change in | 
form and size, and he began to select j 
those which best suited his use. If | 
he wanted horses to haul heavy | ' 
loads he chose the largest. If he | 
wanted a horse to ride when going j 
to war he chose that which was fleet- | 
est and most intelligent and compan- | 
ionable. The soldier’s horse in all | 
ages has been his companion. In | 
cattle, if milk and butter were the | 
products desired, those cows which | 
produced the greatest amount of | 
these materials were chosen. If it | 
was meat that was wanted, the heav- | 




694 



. .in.... THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM hiiiiiiiiiiii ...iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinijg 


:: 




iest, thickest bodied cattle were 
chosen. 

Then some people fancied 
cattle that were red in color, 
others, those that were black, 
and yet others, those that were 
roan. As a result of all these 
Different changes and selec- 

Ty£es of tions we have many 

Animals different k i n d s of 

horses, cattle, sheep, swine and 
poultry adapted to different 
uses. There is the ponderous 
draft horse that pulls the 
plow for the farmer and draws 
our heavy loads on the streets. 

The draft horse was raised in 
the rich pastures of France, 
England, Scotland and Bel¬ 
gium, and has had all the feed it 
could eat for many generations and 
every year for a long time the larg¬ 
est and strongest have been chosen to 
be the parents. No wonder then that 
these horses have grown to weigh 
more than a ton each. All draft 
horses do not belong to the same 
breed. We have the Percheron from 
the Province of La Perche, France; 

“Dinner Time” 




I’ve Got Some Baby Ducks!” 


the Belgian from Belgium; the Cly¬ 
desdale from Scotland; the Shire 
from England; and many others of 
lesser importance. Then there are 
the ponies kept principally for chil¬ 
dren to ride and to drive. Ponies 
came from the cold, bleak hills of 
Wales and of the Shetland Islands 
where they got only such poor feed 
as they could find growing among 
the rocks. It is no wonder that 
they are dwarfed, until they 
weigh only three or four hun¬ 
dred pounds each. It takes six 
or seven ponies to weigh as much 
Tfifly as one draft horse. 

Shetlands Between the draft 
Are so Small ] 10 rse and the pony 

are many horses of different sizes 
and uses. We have the proud 
saddle horse, the fleet English 
thoroughbred used for racing 
and hunting, and the courageous 
and faithful Arabian horse 
which is as much a companion as 
a helpmeet to the man of the 
desert. There are the driving 
horses such as the American and 
Russian trotter, swift, coura- 



:: 


695 








iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin .................. 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii* 


What All Children Tease For 



Shetland ponies are small because their ancestors could not grow very big on the scanty food 
supply in the Shetland Islands. They are born pets and all children love them. Here is a fine 
350-pound specimen. 


geous and beautiful, and a large 
group of heavier horses used for 
drawing carriages and coaches. 
These are the Hackney, the French 
coach, and the German coach. 

There is no less a diversity among 
cattle. Some are kept almost en¬ 
tirely for the milk and butter they 
produce as the Holstein, Jersey, 
Guernsey and Ayrshire, while others 
are kept entirely for the beef they 

Milt and produce as the Here- 

Beef ford, Angus and Gallo- 

C at tle way. The cattle known 

as Shorthorns are excellent for beef 
production and produce a moderate 
amount of milk and butter as well. 
The Red Polled cattle possess both 
dairy and beef qualities but neither 
to a very high degree. By reason of 
their value for both uses they are 
called dual purpose cattle. 

The two principal classes of swine 




are the bacon type and the lard type; 
the one long, narrow and tall, the 
£ ar j other thick, short, and 

and Bacon heavy set. As their 
Hogs names indicate, the ba¬ 

con type is used principally for the 
production of bacon, the lard hog 
for the production of fat. Both pro¬ 
duce good hams. The bacon type is 
grown principally in the Northern 
states and Canada and in Europe. 
The lard hog is the type grown in 
the corn belt of the United States. 

There are two great classes of 
sheep, the one grown principally for 
wool and the other kept chiefly for 
mutton. We further divide the 
Wool group kept principally 

and Mutton for mutton into long 
She ‘t wools, as the Cotswold, 

Lincoln and Leicester, and the 
medium wools, such as the South- 
down, Shropshire, Hampshire, and 




696 


... .. ...111111111.1111.. 




Kuiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM .... uiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii .mining 


“The draft horse was raised in the rich pastures of France, England, Scotland and Belgium, and 
has had all the feed it could eat for many generations, and every year for a long time the largest 


and strongest have been chosen to be the parents. No wonder, then, that these horses have grown 
to weigh more than a ton each.” The first horse is a Clydesdale and the second a Belgian. 


Clydesdale and Belgian Draft Horses 














^inimiinmimiiunmiiiiniinnniigiBiiiinmiiininiiininiiimnniniii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinini 


The American Trotting Horse 



Trotters are built for speed and endurance, not for great pulling power as the draft horses are. 
Compare the slim, graceful lines, slender neck and long legs of this trotter with the stockiness and 
heavy muscles of the horses on the preceding page. And see the intelligent, questioning look in, 
this horse’s face—as if he were asking the camera man what is happening. Generations of associa¬ 
tion with man has given him an expressive face, as well as a beautiful body. 


The Hackney Type 



This black beauty is a Hackney, a carriage and light coach horse. Hackneys have been bred 
for both strength and speed and combine the characteristics of both draft and trotting animals, as 
you can see by a comparison of the pictures. 



698 
























^ni[iiminniiiiiiiiiiiiiii[niii!niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiii!iiin.mm xHE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihihiuiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiii^ 

than all the other fowls combined. | 
Chickens are divided into four j 
classes: The Asiatic, Mediterran- | 
ean, American and English. The | 
Asiatic fowls have feathered legs | 
and are large, slothful and poor | 
layers. The Brahmas and Cochins | 
are common breeds of this class. The | 
Mediterraneans are small, active, g 
nervous, without feathers on the | 
legs and are the best layers known, j 
Among the well known breeds of | 
the class are the Leghorns and the | 
Minorcas. ] 

The American and English classes | 
stand between the Asiatic and Med- | 
iterranean classes in size, activitv I 
and laying qualities. They are kept | 
for both meat and eggs and are dual g 
purpose fowls. The common breeeds | 
of the American class are the Ply- | 
mouth Rocks, the Rhode Island | 
Red, and the Wyandotte. Of the j 


A Combination Milk and Beef Breed 




Shorthorn cattle have slightly sloping backs, and legs and necks a little longer and more slender 
than those of the beef breed shown on the next page, but these characteristics are not so fully devel¬ 
oped as in the pure milk breeds, such as Jerseys and Holsteins. Shorthorns are becoming very 
popular as general utility cattle because they are both milk and beef producers. Localities where 
dairying is in its infancy find the Shorthorn the most practical for the general farmer. 



| Dorset, but all are mutton types. 

The fine wooled type have short 
| wool and are represented by the 
| great class of Merinos. The Meri- 
| nos or fine wools are especially 
| adapted to living in large flocks on 
g the ranges where vegetation is 
| sparse and where hardiness is a 
| valuable asset. The mutton types 
| are adapted to farm conditions 
| where ample feed, good care, and 
| shelter are provided. A long time 
| ago sheep were known as the animal 
| with a golden hoof because they en- 
| riched the owner and also enriched 
| the land upon which they grazed. 

The Chickens and Their Eggs 

There are a number of kinds of 
J domestic fowls such as chickens, 
| turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, and 
| pigeons, but the chicken is many 
1 times more numerous and valuable 


699 









^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

E 

A Beef Producing Breed 


Here is a champion Aberdeen Angus bull. The Aberdeen Angus have been trained by selective 
breeding to turn hay and grain into beef. The short, stocky build of the animals and accumulations 
of fat show this quality. 

A Three-Year Old Record Breaker 


The world’s record in butter fat production was beaten by this pretty Holstein cow. Jersey and 
Holstein are the two leading milk breeds of cattle. Compare the build of the animals in this and 
the next picture with that of the Angus and Shorthorn. 




700 












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C= 

A Jersey Mother and Two Fine Babies 



Jersey cattle, the famous milk producers, are smaller than most other breeds. Their slender 
graceful bodies, creamy brown color and soft, intelligent eyes make them favorites with many 
people who have an eye for beauty as well as utility in their herds. 



> ..*r 




Making Buttermilk into Cheese 

Buttermilk Cheese 

non 

The Univertity Creamery 


m:f: ;• 


The University of Wisconsin has done much to help the farmer. This is one of the University’s 
inventions, cheese made in the creamery from buttermilk. Buttermilk was a drug on the market in 
dairying localities, but because a satisfactory way of converting it into cheese has been discovered 
it is worth ten times as much as it was before. 



















..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiii' 111111111111111111111111111111111 "^ 


At the left is a wild boar, the ancestor of all of the many breeds of hogs. Wild boars were 
natives of Asia, Africa and Europe, and are not yet extinct. They were vicious, swift and powerful, 
but became domesticated early in the history of mankind. A few generations of care made the 


animals more greedy and less particular in their choice of food and displayed their tendency to 
accumulate fat. The pig at the right is a good bacon-producing type—-with long legs and sides. 
The two pigs in the middle of the page show the characteristics of both bacon and lard types. The 


one with the white band is a Hampshire, a breed noted for its big litters. The dish-nosed specimen 
is a Berkshire. The last two on the page are true lard types, Poland China and, Duroc-Jersey. 
Duroc-Jersey sows are better mothers than some other breeds. 




The Pig Family 






















The Rambouillet sheep is really a branch of the American Merino breed. Its skin is loose, lying 
in folds that give more surface for the growth of wool. The wool of this breed is exceptionally fine 
and heavy. The tendency of Rambouillet sheep to stay together in one flock makes them especially 
suitable for farmers on our great Western ranges. 


THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM 

The Hornless Shropshires 


Notice the breadth of body of these sheep. They are Shropshires, long-wooled and good mutton 
= producers. 


A Rambouillet Gentleman of Quality 




7 ° 3 


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tjiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiniiniiramniiiiimiiimmiiiiimiiimimiiinimiiiiiimiiiiiiniiinimig 

I A School Garden in Toledo I 


“The best way to learn about plants is to grow them. If the pupils prepare' the soil, plant the 
seed, watch the young plant burst through the soil crust, and unfold its leaves to the light and air; 
if they care for the plant throughout its life; and gather with their own hands the harvest, they 
will understand plants better than if they read about them or were merely told about them.” 


English class the Orpington is the 
only breed that is common enough to 
be well known in this country. 

The School in the Garden 

The best way to learn about 
plants is to grow them. If the 
pupils prepare the soil, plant the 
seed, watch the young plant burst 
through the soil crust, and unfold its 
leaves to the light and air; if they 
care for the plant throughout its 
life, and gather with their own 
hands the harvest they will under- 

The Plants stand plants better than 
‘Themselves as if they merely read 
Teachers about them or were 

merely told about them. They 
would then know that the soil must 
be prepared for the seed; that the 
seed of each crop must be planted at 


the proper time and proper depth in 
the ground; and that each crop 
needs its own care and kind of sea¬ 
son for the best yield. 

The pupils would learn that most 
of the plants of the garden and 
field are grown from seeds but that 
some plants such as the potato, sugar 
cane, and the banana are produced 
from buds or eyes. They would 
learn that seeds which will germin¬ 
ate and produce plants are alive. In 
each such seed there is a tiny living 
plant folded up and tucked away 
between thick layers of food. It is 

The Seeds up on this food that the 

and How tiny plant lives. When 

They grow th e seed is planted in 
the warm, moist soil it absorbs 
water and air and soon the tiny 
plant which may have been asleep 


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704 












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= (c) keystone Vxe\c Co. 


E Feeding the Pullets 

The barred Plymouth 
H Rocks and Leghorns 
j§ are probably the com- 
| monest breeds in this 
H country. Plymouth 
(§ Rocks are good layers, 
j§ and are large enough to 
1 be used as meat fowls 
E too. They make better 
1 mothers than the Leg- 
§f horns. 


White Leghorn Hens 

It was a white Leg¬ 
horn hen that broke the 
world’s record by lay¬ 
ing 303 eggs in a year. 
The Leghorns mature rap¬ 
idly, are active, small and 
good layers. 





giiiiiuiiniiiiM 

| for months and 
| maybe for years be- 
| gins to wake up 
| and grow. The 
| plant cannot yet 
| draw any food 
| from the soil for it 
| hasn’t any roots 
| with which to take 
| up the soil food 
| and besides it 
| hasn’t any leaves in 
| which to digest 
| such food. Soil 
| food must be di- 
| gested and c o m- 
| bined with air food before it can 
| nourish the growing plant. The 
| work of preparing soil food so that 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiM 

E5 

the plant can use it j 
is done by leaves | 
and only in the j 
light. The seed j 
food was prepared j 
by the mother plant | 
so that the young j 
plant could use it | 
without roots or | 
leaves. So the plant | 
must live on the j 
food stored in the | 
seed until its roots | 
are formed and | 
spread out in the | 
soil and until its | 
leaves are unfolded in the sunlight j 
and air. j 

Then the tiny plant is ready to be- | 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


How the Plant Begins its Life 



you. *ry plant 



At the bottom is the embryo of a grain 
of corn. The upper diagram shows how 
the young plant develops in a lima bean 
and the comparative size of embryo and 
food material stored in the seed. 



A Carolina Poultry Club 


The United States Department of Agriculture believes in teaching all branches of agriculture to 
the coming generation, not only making good farmers and farmers’ wives of the future in this way, 
but also influencing the present generation of farmers, who will learn in no other way so well as 
by being outdone by their children. This is the Polkton Poultry Club of Anson County, North 
H Carolina. s 

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70 6 








giiiiiiiiiuniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE NEW LIFE ON THE FARM Hinniinmiiniiiiiiiiumiiniiiiffliiiiniiiiiiiiiiiituiiiimiiiiiiii^ 

Ejj 

I Garden Products I 



These are the vegetables, the crisp, fresh garden things that can be grown in almost any back¬ 
yard in the country with a little care and cultivation. They are all familiar dishes on the American 
table, and heaped together they make an imposing array of garden good things. 


gin housekeeping for itself, al¬ 
though it will grow faster and get 
along better if it can still have a 
little help from the seed for a while. 
But very soon all the food the seed 
contained is used up and the plant 

Hewing tic must g et its own living. 
Plant Earn The plant can do this 
Its Living only if the soil was 

properly prepared before the seed 
was planted; if the rains come often 
enough to furnish the water for the 
growing plant; and if the children 
will do their part. 

After the plant is up, the chil¬ 
dren’s part is to protect it against 
weeds. If weeds are allowed to 

i 

grow they will rob the plant of its 
food and water and crowd it so that 


it cannot grow. Sometimes it will be 
necessary to protect the plant 
against robber insects which will cut 
it down or suck its juices so that it 
cannot grow. When all these things 
are done for the young plant, it will 
grow rapidly and will soon blossom 
and produce seed. When the seeds 
have ripened, many plants die and 
depend upon the tiny plant in each 
seed to produce other plants the next 
season. Corn and wheat are ex¬ 
amples of such plants. They are 
called “annuals” because they live 
but a single year. Some plants live 
many years, as the alfalfa plant, the 
rose bush, or the apple tree. These 
plants are called “perennials” be¬ 
cause they live more than two years. 


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707 














IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIW 

A Beautiful Flower Design 


This beautiful flower design was made by a high school girl on gray paper with wash 
and a little Chinese white. No forms are more beautiful than those that nature 
makes in flowers. 


708 









TURNER 


DA VINCI 


LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 


DRAWING 


Learning to Draw 


The Three 
Important 
Toints 


T HIS is a big subject, for it 
really means art education. 
In whatever you undertake be 
sure to clearly understand that 
each of these things— 
drawing, design and 
color—is fundamental 
in a work of art and that all three 
may have an important place in 
even a single production. 

When we gain ideas from hav¬ 
ing seen certain things we often 
want to record them on paper. 
We can do this in one of two 




ways; we can either write the 
idea or we can make a picture of 
it. Of course, in the very begin¬ 
ning the first letters we learn, 
and which we now write so rap¬ 
idly, were very carefully drawn, 
but as we only have twenty-seven 
different ones to make and as we 
spend so much of our time repeat¬ 
ing them they become so familiar 
to us that we do not have to 
think when we draw them. We 
just write them. 

In drawing we never have time 


' RtMBRANOT 


VCIASQU£Z 


CORRCQStO 


GAINS 

BOROUGH 


709 









































Simple But Beautiful 
Designs 

These are simple but beauti¬ 
ful designs, further illustrating 
the grace and variety of form in 
our common flowers. Such de¬ 
signs are easily made if you 
first draw careful outlines with 
ink, then fill in the leaves and 
stems with a light tint of wash, 
and add a few blacks. 


♦♦ 


♦> 


710 
























LESSONS IN DRAWING 


I M 

V* 


How to Hold 

the Brush 

This is the 
proper way to 
bold your brush 
so that you can 
make your 
strokes slowly 
and carefully, yet 
boldly. The grass 
spray below 
shows result. 



to become as fa¬ 
miliar with the 
forms, they are so 
numerous and so 
different. But 
there are certain 
principles neces- 
sary in all draw¬ 
ing and when 
these are well un¬ 
derstood we can 
draw almost any- 
thing. Then, 
there are certain 

types of objects which we should 
know, so that we can classify our 
forms. 

Three types of objects suggest 
themselves. They are plant forms, 
The Three animal forms and manu- 

Classes factured forms. Nearly 

of Forms everything may be 

placed under one of these heads. 

Plant form or nature 
drawing includes the grow¬ 
ing plants, berries and fruits, 
trees, vegetables and so on. 

We will first draw some of 
these. 

Only a few materials are 
necessary; a camel’s hair 
brush (No. 7), some black 
paint or ink, a pan of water, 
a blotter, a medium soft pen¬ 
cil (HB or B), and some 
drawing paper. 

Small slender plants, such 
as grasses and sedges, are 
excellent for beginners in 
brush drawings, as a stem 
may be made with a single 
stroke. Bigger things, such 
as tree leaves and branches, 
fruits or vegetables, are 
adapted to pencil drawing, 
also. 

The brush should be held 
almost vertically. You make 



wide or narrow lines with it by a 
guided pressure of the fingers. It 
is well to try the brush first on a 
scrap of paper to see what it will do. 
Good drawing can be made only 
after the use of tool or brush has be¬ 
come familiar to you. 

A good plan to 
follow in drawing 
a nature spray 
is to: 

First, note the 
» movement of the 

growth and the general direction. 
Has it an angular growth like the 
clover or the wild carrot or is it 
curving and graceful like grass or 
the dog-tooth violet? 

Second, note the branching and 
division of spaces. Where is the 
first change of growth? How far 
above is the next branching? 

Third, note the proportion of 

parts. What is the relation of the 
size of the stem to the leaf and flow¬ 
er, if it has one? 

Fourth, note the foreshortening of 
parts, or the relative width of a leaf 
from front to back. Does it appear 
its true size and shape? 

Fifth, note its construction and its 
joints. How do the stems and leaves 
attach themselves? 

The spray may be drawn in one 
of two ways. It may either 
be sketched, very lightly, 
with a single line of the pen¬ 
cil to indicate the placing, and upon 
which the brush strokes will be 
painted, or it may be freely painted 
without aid of any kind. 

For this work the brush should be 
fairly wet but not dripping. The 
stroke should be made in the easiest, 
freest possible manner and when 
once made, it should not be altered 
or blotted out. In painting a spray 
of leaves the main stem should first 




*> 


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giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliniiiiiiillllliiiiiiiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii»iiiiiiiiii'ii | >^ 


The Gracefulness of Leaves 



This picture shows careful study of leaves by a pupil in the grades. You will notice she has 
added some accents which suggests the thickness of the leaves. In adding your accents be careful 
to put them only where shadows are darkest. 


By a Kindergartner 



be swept in with 
as few strokes as 
possible, then the 
branch stems, in¬ 
cluding the mid rib 
of the leaf, and final¬ 
ly the leaves. In 
such a flower as the 
tulip the blossom may 
be painted first, as it 
wilts so rapidly, and 

Here is what a kindergar¬ 
ten boy did simply with a 
brush and some lamp black. 
You see, he drew a familiar 
object as he remembered it. 
He expressed the idea in his 


then the stem and | 
leaves may be sketched. | 
First the objects may j 
be made in flat silhou- | 
ette. Not until the | 
brush is a familiar tool | 
should modeling or at- j 
tempts at light and | 
shade be made. Just | 
how this is done will be | 
taken up when we come | 


own mind and was not H 
“afraid of himself.” Such = 
drawing shows natural tal- j§ 
ent and should be encour- E 
aged by teachers and J 
parents. 


®l 


a 


712 



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of this essential placing. 
The various masses and 
shapes should then be 
carefully drawn and the 
joints searchingly ob¬ 
served. After all has been 
carefully rendered a few 
accents or slightly heavier 
strokes may be added. 
These should be made at 
some of the joints where 
little spots of shadow may 
be found and where parts 
of objects project toward 
the front. Only a few 
accents should be shown 
or the drawing will ap¬ 
pear spotty. 






You know that art is an instinct with the Japanese. Here 
is an example of it in the work of a little Japanese boy named 
Toyo, in the Fifth Grade of the schools of Los Angeles. He 
did this with a brush and a little lampblack on cream-colored 
paper. He used the lampblack heavy for the stems, just a 
little heavier for the berries, and very light for the leaves. No¬ 
tice that some of the leaves are darker than others, which shows 
they are more in the shadow. 


to consider the subject of color. 

In pencil drawing two lines must 
be used to show thickness. A single 
stroke as with the brush will not 
show a stem. The 
object should be 
lightly sketched in 
to get it placed 
and properly pro¬ 
portioned. This 
insures a working 
foundation so that 
as the drawing 
progresses there is 
less need to think 


How to Draw Animal Forms 

Just as in plant draw¬ 
ing so in drawing animal 
forms the structure of the 
object should be carefully 
observed. This foundation 
may then be clothed or 
filled in and the form will 
have strength or what we 
call character. 

In the beginning the 
brush may be used to 
form a silhouette, thus 
bringing out the individ¬ 
ual shape. Afterwards if the skele¬ 
ton in action is sketched first the fin¬ 
ished drawings will be more truth¬ 
ful and life-like. We know that 

every animal has a 
head, a neck, a 
body, arms and 
legs. Drawing a 
few skeleton fig¬ 
ures helps to show 
the different parts 
in their proper re- 
lation to each 
other. 

In drawing ani- 


A First Grade Wheelbarrow 


See What Toyo Did! 



This wheelbarrow was made by a First Grade 
pupil with red crayon on a rough surface 
paper. To be sure, the wheel is not exactly 
round, but it shows the little artist knows 
just how a wheelbarrow is made. 


►> 

»> 




7i3 











v 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 
How Things Are Made of Cubes 






And now look at this funny object on the left. Would you think that was going to be a dog? 
His neck is a little too long and he is made of blocks, but, at the same time, you see the form 
of the coming dog. If you study objects you will find that every one is shaped as if it were 
modeled around a cube—it has front, back, top, sides and bottom. So a dog, for example, may be 
said to be simply a set of cubes rounded off at the corners! Whenever you start to draw an object, 
sketch in lightly the combinations of cubes which you can imagine underlying its outward form. 
Then the handling of the light and shade will be comparatively easy. 


mals the fol¬ 
lowing points 
should be 
noted: 

First, that 
proper ac¬ 
tion, that is, 
the twist or 
turn of the 
skeleton, will 
insure a good 
final form. 

Second, that always in 
the young form the va¬ 
rious parts are rounder 
and fuller than in the old¬ 
er forms. 

Third, that if you think 
of the animal’s method of 
existing it is always easier 
to draw it. For exam¬ 
ple, a duck swims and so 
its legs are short, its feet 
are webbed and its body 
is built low with a heavy 
stern like a sail boat; but 
a hen walks on the ground 
and her legs are longer, 
her feet are stronger and 
without the webs, and her 
beak is pointed and sharp 




so she can | 
peck at her | 
food. | 

The pen- | 
cil is a fine | 
medium for | 
animaldraw- i 
i n g, a n d | 
should be | 
handled just | 
as in the | 
drawing of | 
plant forms. A little col- | 
ored crayon touched in I 
after the drawing is made | 
sometimes works up very | 
effectively. | 

The Picture Language of 
Mechanics 

There are two kinds of | 
drawings commonly used | 
in connection with manu- | 
factured forms. The word | 
manufacture at once sug- | 
gests one kind of draw- | 
ing, the working drawing. | 
This is a drawing made j 
so that a manufacturer | 
can work from it and re- | 
produce the object drawn j 
any number of times. | 


$* 


714 






This is what is known as a “working drawing.” It is the plan for a cone. The base is 
represented by a circle at the top, which you see is \ 3 /\ inches wide. Below this is the sides 
view, which shows that the cone is to be 2^4 inches high. The bottom of this side view is, of 
course, the same width as the base. At the right is shown a piece of paper cut out according to 
these dimensions. First make similar drawings on a piece of stout paper, and then cut out the 
parts and see how nicely they fit together. 


Such a drawing may be made free¬ 
hand and is then called a shop 
sketch, or it may be made mechanic¬ 
ally by the use of a T-square and 
triangles. 

When a working drawing is made, 
separate and detached views show¬ 
ing only one side of the object at a 
time are given, but they are placed 
in a certain relation to each other. 
The front view, which shows neither 
side nor top, is usually placed be¬ 
neath the top view, to the left of the 
right side view, and when this view 
is necessary, which is not often, to 
the right of the left side view. Then 
below and at the right of these 
views the figures or dimensions are 
placed. These show how big the 
object is to be made. 

The working drawing is a most 


important form of drawing, as such 
drawings must always be made be- 

Importance f°re any manufactured 

of Working objects are constructed. 

Drawings Steps, posts, lamps, au¬ 

tomobiles, houses, everything that is 
made in a factory or anywhere else 
requires a working drawing. 

Because they are so important cer¬ 
tain lines and figures are always 

made in the same way in these 
drawings. The illustration will show 
these conventions and also the T- 
square and triangles. For mechan¬ 
ical drawings a fairly hard pencil 
should be used (4H), and all lines 
should be lightly drawn except in 
the finished work, when the lines 
showing the object may be heavier. 

The paper should be placed by 
means of thumb tacks upon a smooth 


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4 


FILING 

BOX 


END 


I 


TOP V/EVS 

“V_ J~ 

I-- 


FRONT 



‘ END 





8 


Ini/isiNe Edcjes 



Extension Lines 


• * /" 


2-4 


Dimension Lines 


716 





























































































3 


LESSONS IN DRAWING 

| board which has a straight edge at 
| the left side. The head of the T- 
| square is then held firmly against 
| this edge and run smoothly up and 
1 Howto down the side as needed. 

| Make Work - All horizontal lines are 
I mg ‘Drawings then drawn against the 
| upper edge of the T-square. The 
| triangle always contains a right 


8 


meet at corners without overlapping, | 
distances and measurements must | 
always be exact. 

Second, only what is necessary | 
for the workman must be drawn, yet j 
at the same time nothing essential j 
to him must be lacking. 


Studies of a Teapot Spout 


= 



A 



From these studies of the spout of a teapot you can see how to go 
H about the study of form. Notice that the spout is studied from five 
= different positions. By the time you have made this number of studies 
M of such a simple object you should be able to draw it, with fair ac- 
§f curacy, from memory. 

| angle. One side of this right angle 
| is placed on the upper side of the T 
| square and all vertical lines are 
| drawn against the other side of the 
| right angle. In this way all lines 
| perpendicular or at right angles to 
| each other may be quickly and ac- 
| curately drawn. For curved lines, of 
| course, compasses are used. 

| In mechanical drawing the fol- 
| lowing things must be noted : 

First, everything must be accu- 
| rately drawn, that is, parallel lines 
| must always be parallel, lines must 


Making Pictures of Manufactured Things I 

The other kind of | 
drawing from man- | 
^ ufactured objects is | 
like our nature and j 
animal drawing and | 
is called representa- | 
tion. The very first j 
may be made flat, | 
showing only the j 
shapes. These may | 
be filled in or they | 
may be left in out- | 
line. The object j 
must be carefully | 
observed as in our | 
previous drawing | 
and then all its char- j 
acteristic shape | 
should be represent- | 
ed. Following this j 
we may try for more | 
truthful representa- | 
tion. | 

Unlike mechanical | 
drawing we seek to | 
picture an object as it appears to the | 
eye. To do this we must understand | 
what are termed laws of perspective. | 
These laws are only necessary in the | 
representation of thickness or depth. | 
Therefore, while unnecessary in the | 
working drawing because the sepa- | 
rate faces are drawn, they are very | 
essential where two or three sides or j 
faces of the object are shown in a j 
single drawing, as in representation, j 
Roughly, manufactured objects | 
may be divided into classes, round j 
or cylindric forms and rectangular | 



♦V 


7 1 7 







♦♦ 


How to Draw Cylindrical Objects 










<z////=>sC on £ Jcrq./ = 




These photographs show you how to draw different objects of a cylindrical shape. One of the 
difficulties in drawing a cylinder in certain positions is to 1 represent the ellipse correctly. A 
common mistake is in making it pointed at the sides. Try first drawing the ellipse itself, then add 
the sides, as in Figure 2. Then erase all of your construction lines, put on a bottom, and you have 
a cylinder as shown in Figure 3. After you have practiced drawing a can at different elevations, try 
a spool, as shown below, which gives you the problem of several ellipses fitting together. Little as 
you might suspect it until you try it, this is a rather difficult drawing to make. 


♦♦ 


♦♦ 


7lS 

































































v 

♦♦ 


LESSONS IN DRAWING 

forms. C y 1 i n d r i c forms of plain 
shape are simple objects with which 
to begin. 

The common objects found in the 
home, such as kitchen utensils, serve 

Fine Models as excellent models. An 
in Your ordinary glass cup or jar 

Kitchen j s good. This should 

be placed in front of you so that you 
can see partly into it. The sides, 
you will notice, appear as straight 


ti 


If the object is raised so that the | 
top circle comes on a level with the | 
eye' you will notice that it then ap- | 
pears as a straight, horizontal line, j 
As it is still further raised the el- | 
lipse appears again but this time the | 
front edge curves upward. 

In drawing the object it may first | 
be roughly located. Then the top | 
ellipse may be lightly drawn just as | 
narrow as it really appears. The j 


To Improve Your Lettering. 

. L 


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1 


v jjr, i 

|* f ^ r j |*. * 


1 » I 

Li 






T: 


J. v 

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y-J—-1-A..—I., 


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t • 

— JU. ... 

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‘•--A.... 


Square off some paper with a pencil and try these free-hand letters, making them fit into the 
squares as shown. After you have practiced this a while you will find that the lettering you 
do looks much neater than before. Our illustration is an example of commendable Seventh Grade 

work. 


vertical lines, but the top and bottom 
which you know are actually circles 
look like ellipses with the front 
edges curving downward. You will 
also notice, if you look carefully, 
that the bottom ellipse, or the ellipse 
which is farther from you, looks a 
little wider from front to back than 
the top or nearer one. This fact is 
very important and if once remem¬ 
bered you can draw any cylindric 
object without looking at it. And 
this holds true whether the object is 
on its side or end for the ellipse 
which is farthest away always ap¬ 
pears widest. 


sides may now be dropped from the | 
ends of the ellipse, always being | 

Sketching SUre _ that the 7 are 1 

Should Be straight and parallel, g 

Retold All this is much more | 

quickly drawn than written. In | 
fact, this first sketching, done ever | 
so lightly, should be accomplished | 
in half a minute at most. | 

After the top ellipse and the sides | 
are sketched the lower ellipse is j 
lightly suggested. The drawing | 
should now be tested. Are the g 
ellipses too narrow? Does it seem | 
to fill the paper well or is it too | 
small? Is it too tall or short? 




♦> 

♦V 


719 






























































































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦v 


When these questions are answered 
the corrected lines may be gone over 
with a heavier stroke and a slight 
accent where the curves of the el¬ 
lipses come toward the front. This 
tends to emphasize the third dimen¬ 
sion or thickness. Of course the 
lower ellipse shows only the front 
half unless the object is transparent 


only two faces and is said to be in 
parallel perspective because its front 
is parallel to an imaginary plane 
placed between the eyes and the ob¬ 
ject. To simplify matters we might 
consider the drawing paper this 
plane and on that we represent the 
object. B shows three faces. Be¬ 
cause the corner is pointing toward 


Illustrations of the Laws of Perspectives 



enough to permit the whole of it to 
be visible. Unless the ellipse is seen 
as a straight line the ends are al¬ 
ways curved, never pointed. Where 
the side, represented by the vertical 
line, joins the ellipse there should 
be noted a smooth flow into the 
curve of the ellipse—never an angle. 
These points are important and are 
constructive features to be followed 
in any cylindrical object. 

What a Box Can Teach You 

Rectangular forms offer new per¬ 
spective elements which must be ob¬ 
served. A simple box is shown in 
two positions, A and B. A shows 


our plane with the sides at an angle | 
to it we say it is in angular perspec- | 
tive. | 

•If we open the cover as at C, we § 
note that the cover is at still a dif- | 
ferent angle to our paper or plane. | 
This we say is in oblique perspective. | 
Any simple box is a good object | 
with which to begin drawing. At | 
first it may be placed in the position | 
of A. Note first, as in all represen- i 
tative drawings, the general pro- | 

Questions to portions. Is it too long? | 
Ask About Too short? Too deep? | 
Your Box Then note that the back | 
edge is shorter than the front edge. | 
Therefore the side edges must slant 1 


a 


♦♦ 


720 



















giiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii LESSONS IN DRAWING 


it*: 


in as they retreat. There is another 
reason for this slanting or conver¬ 
gence. If you look down a long 
straight street or railroad track you 
will see how the sides of the street 
or the steel rails appear to come to¬ 
gether. You will note also that if 
The Great they were carried on and 
Law of extended they would ap- 

‘Persfrctive p ear to meet on a level 

with the eye, or at the horizon, 
which is always at the eye level. So 
in the box the sides of the top which 
retreat from you appear to converge 
to a point on the eye-level directly 
in front of the eye. 

In B, however, the sides retreat 
to the left and to the right, yet they, 
too, converge to points on the eye- 
level. Notice here also that the 
base lines of the box slant up and 
converge to the same points at the 
right and left. There are then three 
pairs of visible lines on either side 
of the front vertical edge and they 
are all parallel. As they all appear 
to converge at the same point we can 
formulate this very important per¬ 
spective rule— all parallel horizon¬ 
tal and retreating lines appear to 


converge to a point on the horizon 
or eye level. When the lines are 
below the eye they slant up to the 
eye level; when they are above the 
eye they slant dozen to the eye level. 

Remembering this it is a simple 
matter to draw almost any rectangu¬ 
lar object. Always in beginning the 
drawing of the rectangular form the 
three key lines should be sketched 
first. Then the other lines are eas¬ 
ily added, but always make it a point 
to show the slight convergence neces¬ 
sary. 

How to Deal with Group Figures 

The last point to be considered is 
grouping. In drawing the group it 
is well to consider it as a whole and 
place marks to indicate the highest, 
the lowest and the widest parts first. 
With very light lines block in the 
group and the individual objects. A 
careful test follows and when all has 
been carefully scrutinized the lines 
are drawn much heavier but with 
thoughtful precision. The nearest 
lines may, as a rule, be slightly heav¬ 
ier than those farthest away. Of 
course two objects can never be in 


A Little Problem in Book Drawing. 



After you have grasped the principles of perspective from the picture on the opposite page, take 
a couple of books and try drawing them as this boy did. See if you can make them look as if 
they were lying on the table and as if one side were just as long as the other. Then put in a 
few accents, and you will have quite a professional-looking drawing. The two letters in the 
corner are the signature of the young artist. But there is another reason for putting therm in just 
that place, and that is to give balance to the picture. 



721 


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8 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


Some Cylinders and Rectangles 



These illustrations show common objects of cylindric and rectangular shape, suggesting general 
constructive features, as thickness, proportion, etc. 


\*> 


Illustrations of Accented Outlines 



Here are some more complicated objects of the common type, showing accented outline. This 
drawing is more complicated than the preceding and you should not attempt it until you have 
mastered smaller and simpler objects. 

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722 













LESSONS IN DRAWING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 


I 



Art and Green Peppers 


Here is a very good sketch of a green pepper. The outlines have been followed very faithfully. 
You can see the person who made this was not afraid of getting a line in the wrong place, but, 
having had practice and knowing what she could do, went at it boldly, and the result is these 
simple, strong expressive lines. 


the same place at the same time, so 
in our group the object nearest us 
must be lower down on the paper. 

Good groups show some variety 
Law of in form, though never 

Harmony in tOO much. A tall bottle 
grouping and & pjp box are no t a 

pleasing group, because of the great 
contrast. Two or three oranges and 

The “Feeling 


a bowl, or a book and a candlestick 
are usually good. 

The illustrations show some pos¬ 
sible groups and also a simple treat¬ 
ment of shading. In shading with the 
pencil simple, direct and thought¬ 
ful strokes, following the general 
direction of the surface and suggest¬ 
ing part of the shadow only, are 
” in Lines 



In all your sketches try to feel that you are 
expressing yourself on paper; go right after the 
lines as if you meant business. Make them light or heavy—just as you feel they should be. In your 
accent lines bear down just as hard as you want to on your pencil. In most of the drawings shown 
here the pencil pushed through the paper where the heaviest accents were made. Whenever you 
think best put a little border around your picture. This will often make it look better, just as the 
borders around the pages of this book improve the appearance of the book. 


I 


I 


= 


I 


♦ ♦ 


723 



















a 


quite satisfac¬ 
tory. Never rub 
the shading and 
never seek to put 
all you may see 
in the drawing. 

Just the strong¬ 
er notes with ac¬ 
cents at joints or 
points of contact 
are sufficient. 

The Principles of 
Design 

When a per¬ 
son makes some¬ 
thing to meet his 
particular need 
we sav he de- 
signs it. And 
likewise when 
decoration is 
added or applied 
to its surface we again use the term, 
The Two saying that he has added 
Forms of a design. Design, then 
•Design may be divided into 

two classes, Constructive Design and 
Decorative Design. The one deals 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

A Conventional Design 





Here is what is called a conventional design. 
It was made by a student for a spring program 
at school. Notice how simple it is and at the 
same time how well balanced and pleasing. 


carving is an ex- | 
ample of decora- | 
tive design. 

Underlying all | 
good design, j 
whether con- | 
structive or dec- | 
orative, are cer- | 
tain fundamental | 
or first princi- | 


pies w h i c h are | 
quite essential. | 
In order to know | 
how to design it j 
is important that | 
these principles | 
be studied. j 

The first prin- | 
ciple is Order, | 
the very first law | 
of the universe. | 
Any good de- | 
sign must be or- | 
derly. A few | 
scattered at random | 
because there is no i 


lines or spots 
are not good 
order, but arranged in a systematic 
fashion the result is a more or less 
pleasing design. You will see im¬ 
mediately, then, that any decoration 


ORDER 


Y' 

VARIETY 




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j§ Examples of Order and Variety 

| with the form and function or use of 
| an object, the other deals only in 
| surface ornament. Therefore a 
| chair, a table or a paper-knife is an 
| example of constructive design. A 
| poster, a bookcover or a piece of 


which is good requires this orderly 
thinking and development. 

The second principle is Variety. 
We may have an orderly arrange¬ 
ment of lines or forms but it still 

/ 

may be uninteresting and monot- 


*? 

♦♦ 


•24 


1 




















4*;iiiiiiii!iiti!iiiitiiiiiuii!iiiiM LESSONS 1 

| onous. A good design will always 
| show some measure of variety or 

I 'Necessityof change. It may be ever 
| Variety in a so little yet still afford 
| Good ‘Design more pleasure than would 

| be found without it. The lines used 
| to illustrate the principle of Order 
| may be varied and while keeping 
| to an orderly arrangement the effect 
| is doubly attractive. 

' Examples of Balai 

| BALANCE 


DRAWING iuiiiiinlM 

usually have their pivoting or bal- j 
ancing point which is always in or j 
near the center of the decorated | 
space. Upon this imaginary though | 
important pivot all the parts and | 
colors of the design must balance. | 
A bisymmetrical design, where the | 
left half is identical, or nearly so, | 
with the right half, only requires | 
adjustment between the top and bot- | 

s and Adaptation. 



The third principle is Balance. 
All good designs are well balanced. 
There are two kinds of balance; the 
balance of equal parts or bisymmet¬ 
rical balance, and the balance of un¬ 
equal parts or occult balance. The 

Tie “Pivot” l atter is a balance which 
of a is observed and deter- 

Picture mined largely by feel¬ 

ing. The principle is best illustrat¬ 
ed by the common “see-saw.” Equal 
weights will balance at points equal¬ 
ly distant from the pivoting point. 
Increase the weight of one end, pro¬ 
viding the pivoting point remains at 
the same place, the larger weight 
must, in order to balance the smaller 
one, move in nearer the pivot. 

Designs which are not borders 
nor repeated patterns covering un¬ 
bounded areas, such as wall papers, 


tom so that the weights above and 
below, balance near the center of the 
space. This is comparatively easy. 
But where the decoration or ar¬ 
rangement of masses is not bisym¬ 
metrical it requires careful and 
thoughtful judging and estimating 
to make sure of proper balance. 

The fourth principle is Rhythm. 
Beautiful designs have a swing or 
graceful movement similar to that 
found in poetry or music. The lines 
The'Rhythm illustrating Order are 
of Poetry more or less rhythmic 
and Pictures because there is a move¬ 
ment from one to another but when 
Variety is combined with Order and 
there is a distinct accented move¬ 
ment, we have Rhythm. Rhythm is 
found in the repetition of lines, 
masses and colors and in single lines 



























8 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


RHYTHM 


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AOZTBCT J>PVTi 


and curves. 

The fifth principle is Adaptation. 
‘Principle This is perhaps the most 

of important principle and 

&£da£tion immediately determines 

whether a design is good or poor. 
Adaptation includes four important 
things: 

(a) The shape must be adapted 
to its purpose. 

(b) The material must be adapt¬ 
ed to its use. 

(c) The con¬ 
struction must be 
adapted to the ma¬ 
terial. 

(d) The decora- 
tion must be 
adapted to the ma¬ 
terial, the construc¬ 
tion and the space. 

Every design de¬ 
mands one or all of 
these requirements 
depending upon the 
kind of design, (a), 

(b) and (c) concern 
only constructive de¬ 
sign and (d) applies 
only to decorative 
design. 

There are otner 
principles of design 
but these five are 
sufficient for the 
problems we will 
consider. In good 
designs all five may 
be found supple¬ 
menting and aiding 
each other to make 


Examples of Rhythm 

the result not only a good design but | 
a beautiful one. 1 


1111 //// j/, ^ 




^ 4 


hue ryor/rj 
















_ 1 



CoweHTiO'vALlZ.KD /VA7VTE 


“Handsome is as Handsome Does” 

In constructive design the purpose | 
or use to which the object is put | 
determines its general shape, style | 
and construction. In decorative de- | 
sign, however, the problem is differ- g 
ent. Something must be used as a | 
decoration and just what it shall be | 

is not so easily de- | 
termined. It may be | 
a line, a geometric | 
shape, an abstract | 
spot or a convention- | 
alized nature form. | 
These are called | 
motifs of design. | 
The line may be used j 
as inlay in a box, the | 
geometric shape may | 
be applied to a floor, | 
the abstract spot may j 
be pleasing on a cur- | 
tain and the conven- | 
tionalized nature | 
form may adapt it- | 
self to a wall paper. | 
We will first try to g 
work out some of | 
these motifs. With | 
the pencil or brush, j 
lines may be quickly | 
made. They may | 
first be placed in ver- | 
tical rows, then slant- | 
ed, then tied together | 
in simple shapes. A j 
fewabstractspotsmay j 
be made on a sepa- | 


C«uur 





726 











































$ 


LESSONS IN DRAWING 

A Conventional Design 



WJZ7 




V 





1 

' 


























































































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i 


a: 





Squared paper is a great aid in making conventional designs. Here a pupil has made a 
sketch of a butterfly. Then he has simplified it and kept on simplifying it until he has the 
conventional design shown in the squares. 


rate sheet of paper, painted and then 
cut out. These black spots may now 
be shifted and arranged to form a 
pleasing bisymmetrical unit and one 
with occult balance. By using five 
different spots varying in shape and 
size an interesting game may be 
played. 

The geometric motifs consist 
merely of the common forms such 
as the square, the triangle, the pen¬ 
tagon, the hexagon, etc. These may 
be used singly or united in pleasing 
surface designs. The boundaries of 
such forms, their centers, their cor¬ 
ners, their diagonals and their axes 
may be greatly varied, often with 
most delightful results. 

Nature As a Source of Design 

One of the most common sources 
of design motifs is Nature. She is 
so wonderful, so orderly, so varied, 
Mother so balanced, so rhythmic 

Nature as and so well adapted to 
an Artist her p Ur p 0 ses; in fact, 

she shows all the principles of good 
design so beautifully that designers 
have gone to her for their designs 


since the beginning of time. 

Good design never allows nature | 
to be imitated and exactly copied. | 
But when used for decorative pur- j 
poses we must simplify her and con- | 
ventionalize her. This means that j 
we are subduing her freedom and | 
are placing her within certain j 
bounds and limits. The more for- | 
mal and dignified and sober the pur- | 
pose of the design, the more re- | 
stricted and conventional must the j 
nature motif become. For example, j 
a cover design for. a school report | 
would be more conventional than a | 
design for an Arbor Day program. 

When we conventionalize we must j 
never lose the big characteristics of | 
the flower or form and its growth. | 
In conventionalizing a few careful | 
drawings should first be made di- | 

Stefs from rectly from the natural | 
specimen. Then, after | 
noticing closely the | 
growth and individual form, we may j 
simplify by keeping boundary lines j 
simpler, by separating parts or by | 
enlarging spots. A second step may j 
follow when the various parts may | 


Nature to 
Convention 


•V 


♦♦ 


7 2 7 











































































































































































:<* 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


8 


Beautiful Work in Squares 




% 'mt m 

immm, 


mmm 








Isn’t this a beautiful design made up of squares? It is done on yellow paper with pencil 
and some wash and a little white. Of course, these are not true pictures of swans, but, at the 
same time, it is quite clear that a swan was used as the foundation for the design. So with the 
design of the tree. These figures, constantly repeated, make a very tasteful border decoration. 


be slightly 
changed or still 
further simplified, 
but all the time 
keeping to the 
character of the 
original form. 

The various de¬ 
sign motifs are al¬ 
ways results of 
thoughtful effort 
on the part of the 
designer. They 
never come with¬ 
out considerable 
trying so it is wise 
never to get dis¬ 
couraged at first 
results. Just keep 
at it and soon 
something good 


This is the cover design of a little booklet 
made in school. It contains a composition on 
flowers. 


will begin to ap¬ 
pear. Then follow 
it up and finish it. 

A good way to 
begin to design is 
to use squared 
paper. This paper 
has lines running 
across the surface 
at right angles 
forming little 
squares. Inter¬ 
esting units and 
motifs can be 
worked out in a 
bisymmetric ar¬ 
rangement or an 
occult balance. It 
is fun to draw a 
bird or some ani¬ 
mal in the squares, 


»> 

♦♦ 


i*.* 


728 



































How to Spell with the Color Alphabet 



You know the whole world of words is made up of only twenty-six letters; but did you know 
that the alphabet of the world of colors has only three letters in it? With the primary colors—red, 
yellow and blue—in various proportions and combinations, nature and the artists “write out” all 
the wonderful color messages they bring to us. 

This color chart illustrates how the primary colors are combined to make new colors, just as 
letters in words are combined to make new sentences. Red and yellow, equally mixed, give 



orange; yellow and blue, green; red and blue, purple. The second row of blocks shows how the 
colors are mixed. You put a block of red paint alongside a block of yellow, for example, and therii, 
while they are wet, by a zigzag movement of the brush, you mix them. The last block on the, 
right shows how all three primary colors are mixed to produce what is called a neutral tone, which 
is used in representing the colors of the bare ground, tree trunks, and so on. 

The picture below shows how the artist uses colors in making a landscape composition. 















LESSONS IN DRAWING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 

Wood Block Designs 




These are different designs suitable for wood blocks. They are made from a study of flowers. 


| always being sure 
| to use squares and 
| not curves to make 
| the figure. 

§ Now for Constructive 
Design 

A constructive 
| design will be our 
| next problem. Per- 
| haps a paper cutter 
| will be good. The 
| first point to think 
| about is its purpose. 
| It is to cut the 
| leaves of a book or 
| open envelopes. 
| Therefore it must 
| have a handle and 
| a blade. 

The next thing 
| to c o n s i d e r is the 
| material of which it 
| is to be made. Shall 
| it be metal or bone 
| or wood? Let us 
| select wood as it is 
| easy to cut and it is 
I light. The next 
| point is size. Of 
| course it must not 
| be very large for 
| envelopes are not 
| large and it must 
| not be too small or 
| we could not han- 
| die it. Our hand, 
| then, gives us a clue 
1 as to its size. Nat- 



Nature is closely copied in this design. 
In such work, if you think a flower would 
look better in a different position, make it 
so, being careful to have the general char¬ 
acter of the plant correctly represented. 


A Cover Design 


urally the blade | 
will be a little long- | 
er than the handle | 
and so we soon ar- | 
rive at seven or | 
eight inches as a j 
suitable length. 

The next ques- | 
tion is the shape. | 
It should feel good | 
to the hand wdiich | 
grasps it; it should j 
be rounded on the | 
handle so that there | 
will be no sharp | 
edges. The blade | 
should be thin and | 
wedgelike so that it | 
can slip between | 
paper. It may have | 
a long curved edge, | 
as it cuts better. 

At this point we | 
can begin to make | 
sketches on paper. | 
And now we must | 
think of some of j 
the principles. Un- jj 
consciously we have | 
been considering | 
Adaptation but now | 
we can c on s i d e r j 
Balance, Rhythm | 
and Variety. The | 
knife should bal- | 
ance well in the | 
hand. Its lines may | 
be varied and at the j 
same time rhyth- 1 


ttiii 


it*: 


729 













..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ... 


Handle. blade. 




fc> 1 • 

mic. So gradually the design ap¬ 
pears and after refining and purify¬ 
ing the lines and shapes we produce 
a more or less beautiful piece of con¬ 
structive design. 

Design for Decoration 

Having designed a paper knife we 
may now think about still further 
beautifying it. Can we decorate it 
and if so, how? Again we must 
consider the material. As it is wood 
it can not be enameled or pierced 
as could metal. It may, however, 
be carved or burned or inlaid or 
merely polished. Let us consider 
carving it. This means that the de¬ 
sign is either to be cut into the wood 
or left while the background is cut 
away. The illustration shows both 
methods. The first is the simpler 
after the design is once thought out. 
On such a small object the design 
cannot afford to be elaborate. 
Therefore, a simple line effect or 
small abstract spots may be adapted. 

A decoration must never hide the 
construction of an object, so the de¬ 
sign must necessarily follow the 
general outline or emphasize the 
purpose or use. It may emphasize 
the handle, the joint between handle 
and blade, or the blade. 


One other example will be suffi¬ 
cient to show how designs are 
worked out. This time we will plan 
a book plate. A book plate is a la¬ 
bel to be pasted inside the cover of 
a book, which tells the owner’s name 
and has some decoration to show 
what he likes or is interested in. 
This decoration may be a book and 

Aftroirmu candle or some animal, 
Things in a a flower, a landscape, a 
Took Plate boat or some other in¬ 
teresting thing. It also contains the 
Latin words Ex Libris (meaning, 
“from the library” of the owner) or 
the words His Book, as well as the 
person’s name. Sometimes a short 
poem is added. In fact, a person 
may use most anything he chooses 
and the problem for the designer is 
to arrange these things in a pleasing 
decoration. We will use in our 
plate the violet, some books and an 
ink-well, with an old-fashioned quill 
pen. 

The first thing to consider is the 
size of the plate. As it must go in 
small as well as large books, three 
inches by four inches will make a 
good size. The next thing is to con¬ 
sider the method of making it. As 
we need a large number of the same 


&1II1II!I1IIII1IIIII1III1IIUIIIII!IIIIUIII11IIIIIII1III1I1IIIIUIIIIIII[||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||IUIIIIII]|||||||[||1IIII[||||||||||||||M 


730 
















& 


LESSONS IN 

book plates, we will have them 
printed and that means that the 
drawing will be sent to an engraver 
who will make a zinc plate from 
which the prints are made. As he 
would prefer a drawing larger than 
the final print, because when made 


i@ 



Various 
Ideas 




smaller by the photographing ma¬ 
chine it is greatly improved in ap¬ 
pearance, we will make our design 
Trying Out j us t f° ur times the actual 
size for the book. A 
large drawing is also 
| much easier to make. We must now 
| make some sketch notes to block out 
| an idea for the design. The name 
| may be at the top or the bottom, the 
| violets may form a border or we 
| may have straight lines. In this 
| way we put down several sugges- 
| tions and finally decide upon the 
| most effective and pleasing one. In 
| making these sketches we must seek 
| for good order, proper balance and 
| simple rhythm in spacing and line. 
| The number of things entering into 
j the book plate gives us at once Vari- 


DRAWING 

ety. Next we block out on the good | 
sheet all that we are going to do, | 
first drawing a vertical middle line [ 
upon which we will balance the de- | 
sign. Then the lettering must be | 
very carefully blocked in with faint | 
horizontal lines at the top and bot- | 



tom of the words, for guides. Fol- j 
lowing this we may make a drawing | 
of the book and ink well and last of | 
all the conventional violets which | 
will serve as a border. | 

When all lines are laid in, we | 
must go over them with great care | 
in ink, after which all pencil lines | 
are cleaned off and any corrections | 
made. The design is now complete. | 
All designs must be considered | 
just as carefully as we have consid- | 
ered these. The purpose, the mate- | 
rial, the construction, the shape, the | 
size; all these questions enter into j 
every design made. | 

Appreciation of the Work of Artists 

When we try to draw or paint we | 
at once begin to appreciate how | 


«# 


73 1 






























































ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiui...limn PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiim 


| beautiful the great drawings and 
| paintings are and how wonderful 
| are the artists who made them. 
[ From the experiences of our own 
| attempts we are able to look at the 
| masterpieces from 
| the standpoint o f 
| drawing and color 
| and, to some extent, 

| design. For any 
| great picture is or- 
| derly and balanced 
| and rhythmic. In 
| studying pictures 
| further, however, 

| the following 
| s h o u 1 d be consid- 
| ered: 

| I. The name 
| nationality and date 
| of the painter. 

| 2. Any features 
| in the picture 


showing foreign things. 

3. What story is told. | 

4. On what the interest in the | 

picture centers. | 

5. What time of day or year is | 

suggested. | 

6. Whether it | 

suggests a similar | 

experience in your | 

own life. 

In addition, each | 

picture would pre- | 

sent its own ques- | 

tions. Penny pic- | 

tures may be pur- I 

chased and a book- | 

let of your favorite | 

pictures will make | 

an excellent design j 

problem, especially j 

if you design a j 

cover in colors. | 




732 























LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 




How to Sew, Mend, and Make Different 

Stitches 


to tell you how easy it is to learn 
to sew, sometimes it’s like playing 
a game. 

We will begin the game with 
the running stitch, because it is so 
easy, and then “running stitch” 
sounds as though we too will soon 
be able to make a dress. 

Make a knot in the end of your 
thread this way. Hold the 
threaded needle in your right 


O NE of the little girls in the 
photograph is really sewing 
on her own new lawn dress, and 
she is making it all by herself. 
The dress is partially done and 
the little girl is anxious to finish it 
to wear this summer. See how 
happy she is with her work. Her 
sister is sewing too, but for the 
moment, she stops to gaze steadily 
into vour eyes, for she wants// 


4 






















































































































































giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiii 11 ^ 



| hand, with the left take the long 
| end of the thread between thumb 
| and first finger, stretch the 
| thread tight; then wind it once 
| around your first finger, crossing it 
| over that held between finger 
| and thumb Fig. i. Press the first 



Fig. 3. Basting With Long Stitches. 


stitches Fig. 3. Fig. 4 gives wrong | 
side. | 

Gathering is running by taking up | 
two threads and leaving four, Fig. j 
5. When finished, push the stitches | 



Fig. 2. The Running Stitch. 


together and stroke the gathers with | 
coarse needle as in Fig. 6. 

In stitching begin by taking a j 
stitch two threads back of needle and J 
two before, then continue in this way | 
making each stitch meet the last as § 
in Fig. 7. | 




Fig. 4. Wrong Side of Basting. 


| finger against the thumb as you rub 
| it down carrying the thread along. 
| Push the knot you have rolled to end 
| of the thread; then begin sewing, 
| running your needle in and out of 
| the material, Fig. 2, making stitches 
| the same in size. 

Basting is running with long 


Backstitching is made two threads 
back and four forward as in Fig. 8. 

In overhanding hold the edges of 
cloth firmly between thumb and 
first finger of left hand, and sew 
across over the top of the edges, 
keeping the edge next you tighter 
than the other as in Fig. 9. Open 



Fig. 5. Gathering. 


Fig. 6. This Is the Way to Stroke the Gathers, i 






7 34 



































































ns* 



HOW TO SEW 

Hemming. Use a card cut like (A) | 
in Fig. 12, for measuring hem width | 
and keeping it even. Turn in the | 


seam and flatten it on wrong side 
with thumb nail as in Fig. io. 



ocjaaaaaooooc: 


Fig. 8. Back Stitch. 

Overcasting is almost the same as 
overhanding except that the stitches 



slant, are farther apart, are taken 
deeper and the seam left closed as in 
Fig. n. 



s Fig. 10. Flatten Out Overhanding Like This 






raw edge, Fig. 13a, again turn, 
Fig. 13b. Sew over finger of left 


i 7 i i 


a 


Fig. 11. This is the Way to Overcast. as in 


Fig. 13. (a) First Turn-down for Hem. | 

(b) Second Turn-down for Hem. 

hand for narrow hem, Fig. 14. 

The rolled hem is for sheer ma- | 
terial. Begin to roll the edge at j 
right hand corner of goods, holding | 
the edge between thumb and first | 
finger of left hand; then with right | 
thumb and slightly dampened first | 
finger roll the 
hem, Fig. 15 - 
In making a 
French seam baste 
edges of goods 
together, and sew 
with three run¬ 
ning stitches and 
one backstitch. 

Repeat until the 
seam is finished 
Fig. 16. 



Hemming. 


•t 


735 























































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


M 



Open the raw material, turn the 
sides over the seam, crease close on 


Fig. 16. Edges of French Hem Sewed 
Together. 


both sides of seam, and again sew 
with first seam inside as in Fig. 17. 



| Fig. 17. French Hem, Showing Inside. 

In felling baste seam with one 
| edge lower than the other, as in Fig. 
| 18. Back stitch edges together, turn 


Fig. 18. 

| upper edge down over lower, crease 
| it, open the material so the fell lies 
| flat, then crease it down and hem, 



using needle when necessary to push 
edge under fell, as in Fig. 19. 

This is the way to make button¬ 
holes. Cut the hole evenly through 
both layers of cloth and make it fit 


Fig. 20. 

your button, overcast the edges or 
hold them together with a running 
stitch, Fig. 20. For strength, bar 



Fig. 21. 

corner, also the side, with several 
threads as in Fig. 21. Make the 
buttonhole stitches cover the bars of 
thread. 

Begin to work on left corner edge 
of slit I-16 in. from edge, and before 



pulling the needle entirely through, 
carry the thread around to the left 
and under the needle, then draw the 
needle through the loop A, Fig. 22. 
Continue in the same way until the 
buttonhole is finished as shown in 
Fig. 23. 


73<? 















































t ' 4 


HOW TO SEW 


Fig. 23. Buttonhole. 



(?) (IT' 



I Fig. 26. Correct way to sew on button. 




Fig. 27. Sew hooks and eyes on so 
that they will never drop off. 

Buttons. Figures 24, 25 and 26, 
explain sewing on buttons correctly. 

First take a stitch on the right 
side of cloth where you want your 
button, Fig. 24; then thread your 
button, Fig. 25. Sew over a pin, 



Fig. 30 

Fig. 26, A,- to make stitches loose 
for winding with thread between 
button and cloth, Fig. 26, B. 

Fig. 27 explains how to sew hooks 
and eyes. 








\ 

/ 













/ 


s, 






J 


Fig. 31 


Fig. 32 


striped cloth, Fig. 30, the ragged 
edges cut straight. Fig. 31 shows 
the %. inch bias cut in corners. Fig. 
32 tells how to turn down these flaps; 
then the patch can be placed over 


* 


Fig. 24. Take stitch on right side of 
cloth before sewing on button. 

Fig. 25. Then thread on button. 


Fig. 28. Dress snaps need careful, firm 
and strong stitches to hold them tight. 

Dress Snap Fasteners must be 
sewed on strong and tight, as shown 
in Fig. 28. 

Mending. When material is fig¬ 
ured or striped, cut patch to match 
design. Fig. 29 shows a hole in 


♦♦ 




737 





















































































































til 



PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 




Fig. 35. Darn strength¬ 
ened and reinforced with 
net. 


| flaps and hemmed to goods, Fig. 33. 
| Fig. 34 gives right side of material 
| with the turned in edges of hole 
| hemmed on patch. 

Mending With Net 

Worn places in embroidery, lace, 
| etc., need net to strengthen the darn. 



Fig. 36. Stocking ready for mending. 


| Baste the net on the wrong side of 
| goods over spot to be mended; darn 
| through both material and net. Then 
| whip edges of net to goods. Fig. 35 
| gives wrong side before edges are 
| whipped. 

In darning a stocking slip the 
j stocking over an egg, Fig. 36 A, 
| then with needle and thread, draw 
| edges of hole closer together, Fig. 


36 B. Begin darning */2 in. from j 
the hole, using cotton of same color | 
as stocking. Work with running | 
stitch, straight across and in. on | 
the other side of hole; leave a loop | 
of the cotton at the end of each line, | 
Fig. 37. Darn across the first | 
threads and when reaching the hole, | 




Fig. 38. Basting tear edges together = 
ready for darning. | 

weave the cotton over and under. | 
Fig.. 37 is wide spaced to show how | 
to weave. | 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniim 


738 


































































































































































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- -% 


Fig. 39. 
stitch. 


Darning tear with running 


In darning a tear draw the edges 
smoothly together by taking one 
basting stitch on one side of the tear, 
then one on the other, passing the 
needle through the open slit of tear 
for each stitch, Fig. 38. 

Then darn with running stitch, 
leaving loop at each turn, Fig. 39, 
and carefully remove basting. 


\ 




Fig. 40. Glove mended with rows of 
buttonhole stitches. 


For a rent in a glove, buttonhole 
around edge of opening, and con¬ 
tinue making rows until the open¬ 
ing is filled, as in Fig. 40. 


Big and Little Things 

I cannot do the big things 
That I should like to do, 

To make the earth forever fair. 

The sky forever blue. 

But I can do the small things 
That help to make it sweet; 

Tho’ clouds arise and fill the skies 
And tempests beat. 

I cannot stay the raindrops 
That tumble from the skies; 

But I can wipe the tears away 
From baby’s pretty eyes. 

I cannot stay the storm clouds, 

Or drive them from their place; 

But I can clear the clouds away 
From brother’s troubled face. 

I cannot make the corn grow, 

Or work upon the land; 

But I can put new strength and will 
In father’s busy hand. 

I cannot stay the east wind, 

Or thaw its icy smart; 

But I can keep a corner warm 
In mother’s loving heart. 

Alfred H. Miles 


739 








LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 


LESSONS IN SEWING 

- ' 


Making New Clothes for Mary Chilton 


see Mary in a “dress-up” dress and also in her new middy blouse and 


Here you 
bloomers. 


out and 
baste t o - 
gether the 
seams of 
sleeves AA 
and AA, 
and of sides 
ABandAB, 




buppose 
w e m ake 

clothes for .. 

our doll, *#3 

Mary Chil- 
ton. She is 
a regular | 
outdoor girl j 
ami needs 
something [__ 

su j table f0r Silk W 

playing 

tennis, camping and for trailing. 

Bring your khaki-colored cam¬ 
bric and weTl cut a middy blouse 
by the pattern. Hold the material 
lengthwise and pin on the 
pattern, Fig. I. Now cut it 


shows the 
g a r m e n t 
basted 
ready for 
sewing to¬ 
gether with French seams. This 
done, hem edge of sleeves, and 
bottom of blouse; then cut out the 
sailor collar, Fig. 3, hem the outer 
edges, and baste the collar on 
neck opening of blouse. Cut 




















































































































































v 

♦♦ 


™ LESSONS IN SEWING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw^ 



a bias strip of the goods and baste 
the strip on along the raw edge of 
the collar Fig. 4. Sew all three edges 
together, joining strip, collar, and 
blouse; then turn the strip over the 
raw edges, fold in its raw edge, and 
hem the strip down on the middy. 

A square of the same goods can be 
used as a patch pocket. Turn in a 
hem on the bottom and sides, Fig. 5, 
and cut the top corners according to 
dotted line C, Fig. 6 , which makes 


the corners like D, Fig. 6. Turn 
down top hem along dotted line Fig. 
7, and sew. Try the blouse on Mary 
Chilton, pin the pocket in place and 
stitch it on the blouse. 

Fig'- 8 gives the pattern for one 
half of the bloomers; double your 
material, pin on the pattern and cut 
out the bloomers. Sew together the 
two short edges EE then the two 
long ones FF. Face each side 
placket with strip of goods, Fig. 11. 


»,* 

*>♦ 


♦♦ 


741 















































luniiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiii^ .niniiiiiiiiiiiiiii: 


♦ ♦ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Picture Story of the Bloomers 


& 





FIG. 17 



FIG. 16 




Sew strip on right side then hem 
down, Fig. 12. For gussets cut a 
square into two triangles, Fig. 14, 
then, Fig. 15, cut off the two corners 
G. This gives you Fig. 16. Fold 
on dotted line and gusset is ready to 
use, Fig. 17. Fit point H of the gus¬ 
set, Fig. 17 in the opening (O) of 
the placket, Fig. 12. Sew the point 
in on right side with over-and- 
over stitch. Dotted line, Fig. 18, 
shows the right side of gusset. The 
remaining part is folded over 
on the wrong side and hemmed 
down, Fig. 18. Gather the top 


of the bloomers, stroke gathers and 
pin the center of each to the center 
of a band; also pin each gathered 
end to the band, Fig. 19. Baste the 
band in place and stitch the bloom¬ 
ers to the band; then fold the band 
over, turn in and overhand the ends, 
and hem the band down on wrong 
side of bloomers, Fig. 20. Run 
elastic in the bottom hem of each leg 
of the bloomers and fasten the 
plackets with buttons and button¬ 
holes. 

For stockings, hunt up an old dis¬ 
carded long silk or cotton glove, pin 






742 







































& 


LESSONS IN SEWING 

For Making Mary’s Hat 



FIG. ZZ 




FIG. 2V 

on the stocking pattern, Fig. 21, and 
make Mary Chilton a pair of stock¬ 
ings. Hem the tops and stitch the 
seams. 

Now Mary needs a khaki cambric 
hat for her khaki suit, so make the 
crown of four pieces of the material 
cut from Fig. 22 ; sew the side edges 
together and fit the crown on Mary; 
make smaller if too large. Cut the 
brim, Fig. 23, double, making two 
circles, sew the outside (circumfer¬ 
ence), edges together and turn the 
brim right side out, causing the raw 
edges to lie between the two layers. 
Stitch one small, loose, circular edge 
to the edge of the crown and hem the 
other loose edge over the seam down 
to the crown, Fig. 24. The photo¬ 
graph shows Mary Chilton proudly 
wearing her complete khaki out¬ 
door suit. 

Mary’s union underwear can be of 
soft cambric. Fold the goods and 
place the pattern with its straightest, 
longest edge on the fold as in Fig. 


FIG. Z 3 


25. This entire garment is. in one j 
piece of cloth, and opens at the back. | 
Fig. 26 gives the cut-out garment j 
folded before being sewed. The | 
dotted lines show the edges of the | 
drawers hidden under the waist and | 
one drawer leg. Fell the two edges, | 
PP and PP together, Figs. 25 | 
and 26; then fell the leg edge, PM | 
to NI, Fig. 25. Fell together the | 
arm and waist seam LJ and LJ. I 
Figs. 25 and 26. Face and gusset | 
the plackets, RO, Fig. 25. Hem | 
the bottom of the legs; also opening | 
sides of waist and bottom edge. Use g 
a bias strip of the goods for facing | 
the edge of neck. Gather the loose | 
top edge of drawers and sew on a [ 
band; fasten to waist with buttons j 
and buttonholes; fasten back of waist | 
in same manner. Trim with whipped | 
on over-and-over stitch, ruffles of j 
lace, Fig. 27 and Fig. 28. | 

Make a white petticoat of a strip j 
of cambric; sew seam at back with j 
running stitch, leaving partway open | 


*♦ 




743 







ftllllllllll'llllllllllllllllllll^ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Lingerie for Little Mary 


a 



at top for placket; hem bottom; 
gather top and sew on band; fasten 
with button and buttonhole. 

If you have some lace, make a 
dainty party dress for Mary Chil¬ 
ton’s birthday. Cut the waist by the 
middy blouse pattern, changed only 
by opening all the way down the 
back and rounding the neck. Let 
the waist be of white net; hem the 
bottom edge and whip on a deep 
lace ruffle for the skirt part of dress. 
Trim neck and sleeves with lace 
edging; fasten the back with lace 


the pattern. Fig. 30 gives one cut¬ 
out cambric leg. Make two of these 
and fell all seams; hem bottom of 
legs and face the edge at waist line; 
through the tube thus made run a 
tape drawstring. Cut and work 
two button holes in pajamas near 
the front of waist line, and allow 
the ends of the tape to come out of 
these openings, to be tied together 
when the garment is worn. 

Cut the pajama jacket from Fig. 
31 ; fell seams; hem edge of sleeves, 
and bottom of jacket; face neck and 
front opening. Fasten with small 


♦v 


1* 


744 































This is the Finished Garment 



745 


With Three Little Buttons at the Back This is How it Looks in Front 




















&iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ■nniiiiiinnimiiiurapniuiiinmnramraiiraiiiyiinuraimmiiiiaig 

For Mary’s Pajamas 




dress snaps and sew ornaments of 
soft white string down the front, 
Figs.. 32, 33, 34, 35. 

With the pajamas go white bed¬ 
room slippers. Cut the slippers of 
cambric, Fig. 3 7, and sole of heavy 
white paper, Fig. 38. Make a very 
narrow hem entirely around, Fig. 
37, then paste on the sole, Fig. 39. 
Gather the front edge of the slipper 
up right and it forms the top; orna¬ 
ment with a double knot of the soft 
string like those on the slippers 
Mary Chilton wears in her nighty 
picture. Cut out a paper candle in 
candlestick and fasten it in Mary’s 
hand. 

Christmas is coming and I will 
help you make a handsome bureau 
scarf present. 

First hemstitch both ends of the 
scarf; then, allowing generous space 
for the applique, which simply 
means to cut a design out of one 


piece of cloth and hem it down on 
another, draw out the crosswise 
threads as for a deep hemstitch, and 
with coarse thread and needle bind 
the remaining threads with the sheaf 
stitch, Fig. 42. Sheaf stitch means 
bunching threads of the goods and 
tying them together with your 
needle and thread, T and T, Fig. 42. 

After drawing out the threads 
strengthen the two cut edges by 
working across them with narrow 
buttonholed stitches. Use oval em¬ 
broidery hoops for holding the 
drawn work smooth and firm while 
doing the sheaf stitch. Begin by 
fastening your thread in one of the 
buttonholed sides, Fig. 42S, and 
work from left to right. Run the 
needle under about six threads, Fig. 
42V, bringing it out at open space 
X, Fig. 42. This forms a loop; pass 
your needle through the loop, Fig. 
43Y, draw the thread tight and the 


SiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


746 




Ipiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiin LESSONS IN SEWING imiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiHiinimiiiiiiuiminniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiimuiiiming 

| Pajama Jacket and Slippers | 



sheaf stitch will be finished. 

Choose a pretty embroidery de¬ 
sign, white or fast colors, or cut out 
fast color cretonne flowers; turn under 
and baste down all raw edges; then 
baste the design on the scarf and 
with fine needle and thread hem it 
on the scarf, Fig. 40. 

The practical little handkerchief 
case is another gift you can make, 
Fig. 47. Cut four pieces of card¬ 


board 3^4 in. square, place one card¬ 
board between two thin squares of 
raw cotton and lay these on a 4 in. 
square of flowered silk, Fig. 44. 
Turn the two sides WW, Fig. 44, 
over on the lining and catch the ma¬ 
terial from side to side with long 
stitches, Fig. 45. Catch the two op¬ 
posite sides together in the same 
manner, Fig. 46. 

Cover the second square of card- 


t'JlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN 


4 


747 







^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNO W LED GE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^^ 

| Pretty Work with the Needle 

around the edge 
with heavy twist, 
and use it for the 
top, place folded 
handkerchiefs be¬ 
tween top and bot¬ 
tom and hold all 
together with a silk 
elastic band, orna¬ 
mented where the 
ends join by a gen¬ 
erous bow of nar¬ 
row ribbon. 




| board as you did 
| the first, and with 
| fine needle and 
| thread overhand 
| the two silk-cov- 
| ered squares to- 
| gether; this finishes 
| the bottom of the 
| handkerchief case. 

Make another 
| silk-covered square 
| like the bottom, 
i feather - stitch it 



r/c. 10 


FIG. HH 
































































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii lessons in sewing 




A Handkerchief Gase That You Gan Make for Yourself 




Dolls from Many Lands 



We can play this is Mary enjoying a visit with a number of friends “from abroad.” One of the 
little lady visitors is from Sweden, three from Germany, one from Austria, one from Wales and one 
from Scotland. On Mary’s right is a Swedish lady, on her left, a German. The one back of the 
big wooden shoes is from Austria. (The shoes belong to somebody else!) Near Mary’s right foot 
is another queer little lady with a hat somewhat like that of the Austrian. She is from Wales. Near 
her is another German doll. The one sitting at the extreme left of the picture—how well she sits 
alone—is a Scotch lassie. 


:: 


749 


..Illllllllll.. 






































LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 


WEAVING 


Things to Weave 


The Basket Weaver 


size, the lower the number the 
more slender the reed, and as the 
number goes higher the reed is 
heavier and larger in circum¬ 
ference. Reeds used for spokes 
of a basket should always be 
stronger and heavier than the 
weaving reeds. If you want a 
good sized basket use long, heavy 
reeds as spokes, for a small basket 
select short reeds of lighter weight. 

To make a basket like that 
being woven in the picture, 


O F course you can make a bas¬ 
ket, and enjoy the weaving 
as much as the two little girls in 
the picture are enjoying it. Just 
try, and find how really easy it is. 
When the basket is finished you 
will have made something sub¬ 
stantial, useful, and pretty, and 
you may then be justly proud, for 
you will have woven it with your 
own hands. 

Basket reeds are graded 
and numbered according 1 to /t 



























































































































llllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllN 


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How a Basket Grows 







































































































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pictured knowledge 


♦ ♦ 


1 





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FIG. 


FIG. 9 

cut four spokes of 
No. 3 reeds, each 
spoke 14 inches long. 

Cut one more spoke 
of No. 3 reeds, but 
make it only 8 in¬ 
ches long. Now 
from your bunch of 
No. 2 reeds draw out two strands. 
These two reeds are the “weavers.” 
Coil each weaver into a circle about 
the size of a breakfast plate, and run 
the ends in and out the coil, to keep 
them from unrolling. 

Soak all this material in cold 
water for about an hour. When 
pliable place two 14-inch spokes 
down flat, close together, side by 
side on a table or a board (A Fig. 

1). Across the center of these lay 
two 14-inch spokes (B and C Fig. 
1) and slide the 8-inch spoke D be¬ 
tween B and C, Fig. 1. The end 
of D extends a little beyond the cen¬ 
ter. 

Hold the five spokes firmly in posi¬ 
tion with your left hand while weav¬ 
ing with the right. Begin by fitting 
one end of the weaver under the 
three top spokes, and close to the 
two under spokes, with its extreme 
end pointing toward the right (E 
Fig. 2). Loop the long end of the 
weaver over the three spokes, B, C, 
D, where they meet the two cross 
reeds, flatten with your thumb and 
finger and bring the weaver down 
under its own end E, also under the 
two reeds (A Fig. 2). Next carry 
the weaver over the three spokes 



FIG// 

(Fig. 3) down un¬ 
der the two spokes, 
F u p and over the 
three, down and un- 
der its own end E 
and two spokes A, 
up over the three 
and down under the 
two (Fig. 3). Now stop weaving a 
moment while you separate the three 
spokes B, D, C (Fig. 4). Then weave 
over, under and over these. Con¬ 
tinue to separate all spokes as you 
reach them, and weave under and 
over (Fig. 5). 

When a new weaver is needed join 
it on the last weaver by crossing their 
ends, as shown in Fig. 6. Hold the 
crossed ends steady with the left 
hand as you continue to weave. 

As soon as the bottom of the bas¬ 
ket is sufficiently large dampen the 
spokes, so that they bend easily, turn 
them up (Fig. 7) and keep on weav¬ 
ing until the sides are as high as you 
want them. 

Finish the top of the basket by 
binding it off, with its own spokes. 
First cut off the extending ends of 
the spokes with a slanting cut, mak¬ 
ing them all the same length; hold 
them in water until pliable; then 
bend spoke No. 1 (Fig. 7) and run 
its point down into the opening made 
by spoke No. 8 (Fig. 8). Push 
spoke No. 2 into the weave by the 
side of spoke No. 9. Run spoke No. 
3 down by the side of spoke No. I 
(Fig. 8). Bend down and slide in 
all the remaining spokes in like man- 






752 





















































































♦>iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiih LESSONS IN WEAVING iiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw 



ner, and your basket will be finished. 

Fig. 9 shows the simple weaving 
in and out with one reed F, and a 
number of spokes. Fig. io gives the 
same with the weave H above and 
the weave G below. Fig. 11 is the 
pairing weave, often called primitive 


weave. In this two weavers are 
used at the same time and crossed be¬ 
tween each spoke. 

After you have had a little prac¬ 
tice with the simple weave, you will 
be ready to try your skill in making 
experiments with the pairing weave. 


Bead Weaving 


Make your own bead loom of a 
smooth piece of wood about 12x3 
inches or wider and %-inch thick 
(Fig. 12). On top of each end fas¬ 
ten a small block of wood I inch 
high, *4-inch thick and 4 inches 
long. Tack these uprights in place 
with slender brads. 

Carefully hammer in a row of 
slender, headless nails along the top 
edge of each upright / and / (Fig. 
13), allowing the nails to go in only 
deep enough to hold firmly. Ham¬ 
mer also a large headed tack on the 
outside of each upright midway be¬ 
tween the top and bottom (Fig. 13). 

Use strong waxed linen thread for 
weaving. Tie the long threads all 
together at one end and call them the 
“warp.” Always allow one more 
warp thread than your number of 


beads in the width of belt or chain 
you intend to weave. 

Fasten the knot of warp ends on 
the large headed tack (Fig. 13) and 
carry the threads over the top of the 
upright (Fig. 13), running them be¬ 
tween the nails (Fig. 13 and Fig. 
14). Stretch the threads across to 
the opposite upright between the 
nails (Fig. 13) and bring them down 
on the outside of the upright, w T here 
you must fasten them to the big¬ 
headed tack. 

The warp threads may be as long 
as you wish. After stretching them 
across the loom and attaching them 
to the large tack, wind the extra 
length on a piece of paper and fasten 
it to the loom under the large-head¬ 
ed tack, ready to use when needed. 

If you have 8 warp threads across 


Mu 


♦♦ 


753 


* 

























PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


IE& 





I r/c /j 


I the loom, string seven beads with 
| needle and thread. This thread is 
| your “weft” Warp runs lengthwise 
| and weft goes crosswise. 

Place these weft thread beads 
| underneath the warp threads, adjust- 
| ing the beads so that they can be 
| pushed up between the warp threads 
| and held up by a finger of the left 
| hand (Fig. 14) while you bring the 
| weft threaded needle back through 
| the beads again, on top of the warp 
| threads, and in this way sandwich 
| the row of warp threads between two 
| weft threads. 

Tie the loose end of the weft I, 
| Fig. 14, to the thread in the needle, 
| and the first row of beads will be 
| woven. String seven more beads and 
| weave them as you did the first ones. 
| Continue to repeat the process until 
| the fob, belt or chain is finished. 


Fig. 15 gives a portion of a woven 
bead belt made of white, red, yel¬ 
low and black beads. The same pat¬ 
tern can be used for other colors. 

With two threaded needles and 
good sized beads you can fashion a 
charming necklace. Choose beads of 
any color or colors you like, have 
ready a clasp (Fig. 16) and begin 
work. 

Tie the ends of the double waxed 
thread in each needle together. Run 
this knot through the loop on one 
end of the clasp (Fig. 16) and pass 
the two needles through the extend¬ 
ed thread loop (Fig. 17). Draw the 
knot tight on the metal loop, and 
thread both needles through the same 
bead. Then separate the needles, 
threading each through a different 
bead (Fig. 18). Run four more 
beads on each needle and again pass 




754 
































LESSONS IN WEAVING 


£ 



no. zi 

the two needles 
through the same . 
bead (Fig. 19) after 
which thread each 5 
separate needle with 
five beads and bring 
the beads together 
by running the two 
needles through the 
same bead. Keep on 
making these bead 
rings until the neck¬ 
lace is long enough. Finish by sew¬ 
ing on the catch half of the clasp 
(Fig. 20). 

One word of caution: Always 
work with medium sized, or better 
still, large sized beads. Avoid the 
fine, small beads if you value your 
eyesight. Remember that good eye¬ 
sight is worth more than all the beads 
in the city. 

Weaving a Craft Portiere 

Soft, loosely twisted mop rope and 
soft, coarse twine with some large 
glass beads of various colors are the 
materials you will need for your 
decorative, strong, substantial por¬ 
tiere. 

Have ready an ordinary smooth 
board several inches longer than the 
width you want the portiere. On 
this rule a lead pencil line one inch 
from the top edge and reaching from 





FfG. 22 


end to end of the | 
board. j 

Drive a row of | 
tacks along the pen- | 
cil line inch j 
apart, and on each j 
tack tie the center of | 
a long piece of soft j 
twine. Have the j 
twine vary in length | 
that the joinings | 
may not come in a j 
row, when more twine is added. 

Fig. 21 shows a portion of the | 
board with tacks in place and twine j 
tied on the first three tacks. On the | 
fourth tack (A) the twine is tied j 
loosely, ready to be drawn tight; | 
twine has not yet been fastened on | 

the remaining tacks. | 

Fold in separately the loose ends | 

of strands composing the mop rope j 
end, and fasten them in place with j 
strong needle and thread. Then be- | 
gin weaving. Place the rope end up | 
close to the first tack and hold it in j 
position with an extra tack (B, Fig. | 
22) while you bring the rope across | 
to the opposite end of the board, | 
keeping it well up against the tacks. | 
Draw the rope only tight enough to | 
prevent sagging, and fasten it at the | 
opposite end of the board with an- | 
other tack. Then place the rope in | 
between the two lengths of twine | 

1^ 

♦♦ 


755 





















































































































Jviiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiw 


hanging from each tack. Tie the 
different strands of twine around the 
rope (Fig. 22). C (Fig. 22) gives 
the rope in place but not yet tied 
with the twine. Continue tying in 
the rope until the entire stretch of 


rope is fastened between the twine. 

When the opposite end of the 
board is reached, bend the rope as at 
D (Fig. 23) and turn it back across 
the board, securing it with an extra 
tack, as shown in D (Fig. 23). Again 


The Finished Portiere 


756 












































g iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiN LESSONS IN WE A VIN G aiuiuiuiiiiiuniitniiinrnnininiiiinninnimiiiniiiiininjiiinininnnninii it 


1 adjust the strands of twine over and 
| under the rope and tie. As soon as 
| the second row is tied make a third 
| row (Fig. 23). Weave back and 
| forth in this way, from end to end of 
| the board to the depth of about 8 
| inches. Then instead of single knots 
| make the last row of knots double— 
| a “hard knot” or a “square knot.” 

Cut off the remaining rope and 
| fasten the strands of the rope end 
i with thread and needle. Your weave 


solid rope band about inches | 
wide; next a bead band $ l / 2 inches, | 
using several beads on each double | 
twine. Keep the beads at irregular | 
distances apart. 

Fig. 24 shows four strands of I 
beads as they should be when fin- I 
ished, the fifth double strand gives | 
only the first bead in place, and the | 
remaining strands are not yet | 
beaded. 

Weave solid rope band next and | 



| is now ready for the beads. Moisten 
| the two ends of the first piece of 
| twine hanging from the first double 
| knot, and with thumb and first 
j finger, roll the two damp ends to- 
| gether into a sharp point, thread the 
| point through a red bead, allowing 
| 3j4-inch length of the twine, then 
| slide on a green bead and near the 
| bottom another red one; tie the bot- 
| tom ends of the twine into a double 
| knot ( E, Fig. 24). Have all the 
| hanging twine 3^4 inches in length 
| from the top knot to the bottom one. 

String a green bead, a yellow one 
| and a purple one on the next double 
| twine. Keep stringing various col- 
| ored beads in this way until the band 
| of beads is finished. Then weave a 



weave to depth you wish the length j 
of your portiere. 

Other kinds of soft rope or heavy | 
cord may take the place of mop rope | 
if desired, and the design varied by | 
having a darker weave a short dis- | 
tance from the bottom (Fig. 25). 

If fringe is needed on the bottom j 
of the hanging, make it as in Fig. j 
26. Here G shows exactly how to tie | 
the twine fringe. When finished | 
trim off evenly. | 

As soon as the weave of the por- | 
tiere is deep enough to reach to the | 
bottom edge of your board, remove | 
the tacks and shove the work up, | 
bringing the greater portion of the | 
finished weave over the top edge of j 
the board, fasten again with tacks | 


: 7 : 


757 




































































♦llllllll 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

The Portiere Loops 



r/G 2.7 


(only enough 
to hold it firm), 
while you con¬ 
tinue the work. 

Loops by 
which to hang 
the portiere are 
shown in Fig. 
27. One end of 
a piece of rope 
is pushed 
through be¬ 
tween the first 
and second 
weave and tied. 





p 

$ 

$ 

f 







Then 3 inches 
from the first 
| tie, again the 
rope goes be- 
tween the 
weave, is tied 
after allowing a 
10-inch length 
of rope for the 
loop. Fig. 28 
gives the 
method of 
hanging the 
portiere by the 
loops. 


FIG. 


How the Portiere Is Hung 
































































L ISTEN! This is what the 
enthusiastic little maid in 
the picture is saying to you : 

“See all these pretty things? I 
made them of paper. Aren’t they 
lovely? You try too, it is such 
fun, and the work so quick. My 
paper canoe looks exactly like the 
real one we have at camp, and the 
butterfly is precisely the shape of 
the one I made friends with last 
summer. But I must not talk more 
for it’s time to get to work.” 


The Canoe 

Trace a pattern for the boat, 
Fig. i, on smooth paper. Fold 
the paper first, then mark an out¬ 
line of the canoe on one side, Fig. 
2. Cut it out, open, and you have 
Fig. 3. Lay this pattern flat on 
heavy white paper, run a pencil 
line around the edge, and cut it 
out. Paint the canoe to resemble 
birch bark and close the open 
ends by overhanding the edges of 
the sides together with color- 


Things to Make of Paper 


759 

































































































































8 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


!*♦ 



| ed floss in widely separated stitches. 
| Use blunt end wooden toothpicks as 
| props to keep the central sides of 
| the canoe apart. 

Butterflies 

You will want a number of these, 
| and Fig. 4 gives the outline pattern 
| on folded paper. Fig. 5 shows the 
| butterfly cut out, and Fig. 6 gives it 
| bent and ready for flight. 

Suspend a group of these fairy- 
| like creatures with fine black threads 


of different lengths and not too close § 
together, then watch them fly and 1 
flutter with every motion of the air. | 
The butterflies are especially attrac- 1 
tive made of smooth tissue paper of i 
varying tints, and even though con- | 
ventionalized in regard to color and | 
the absence of characteristic mark- 1 
ings, they are very effective. 

Bird | 

Let the bird, Fig. 7, be of stiff | 
paper. Fig. 8 is the pattern on g 






760 





























/ 










♦ 4 


A Bird and a Butterfly 


no. 7 

PATTERN OF YOUR BIRD 
IN FOLDED PAPER TO BE CUT OUT 


F/O 9 
VOUR FINISHED 
PAPER BIRD 


FIG. i 

YOUR CUT OUT B/RD 
READY TO BEND INTO SHAPE 



t 









..iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. immtmiiiiiiiiiiiinmiiimmiim^ 

Making a Paper Rose 




FIG to 


| folded paper, and Fig. 9 the bird cut 
| out with beak and eyes marked, dot- 
| ted line indicating where to bend 
| the bird through the center. As 
| this is a conventionalized bird it is 
| not intended to represent any par- 
| ticular species, but it may be any 
| kind you wish. A flock of blue 
| birds, “for happiness,” can be made 
| of blue book-cover paper, and the 
j same pattern with scarlet paper 
| gives scarlet tanagers. Paint the 
| wings and tails of the tanagers black. 
| Many other varieties of wild birds 
| may be made with different colored 
| papers. 

After bending each bird, paste 


the two sides of the head together, | 
leaving the body and tail merely j 
bent. The birds, though all from | 
one pattern, look entirely unlike | 
when made of different colored pa- | 
pers and are very lifelike in appear- | 
ance. They may be fastened on a [ 
natural branch, suspended in the air j 
by threads, and can also be used as | 
place cards. 

A Paper Rose 

The pretty, large-sized paper rose, | 
Fig. 10, can be pink, white, red or | 
yellow, and even variegated like our | 
rare York and Lancaster rose. 

Use heavy wire wound with green 1 
tissue paper for the stem, and form j 
the rose petals of strips of smooth, | 
slashed tissue paper, the slashes be- | 
ing 2/2 inches wide and 2^4 inches j 
deep, Fig. 11 A. 

With the blade of a dinner knife | 
curl the two top corners of every | 


i« 


762 
















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LESSONS IN PAPER CUTTING 


A “Strawberry” Basket 


Fig. 12 

petal by drawing the petal between 
the knife blade and finger, Fig. i iB. 

Wad tissue paper on the end of 
the wire stem, and on this as a foun¬ 
dation wind the rose petals around 
and around, gathering the bottom 
edge of the petal strip as you paste 
the petals in place. 

Strawberry-Leaved Basket 

A dainty little strawberry-leaved 
basket, Fig. 12, is just what you 
want for serving individual portions 
of fresh, unhulled strawberries or 
for candied strawberries. 

Trace the pattern, Fig. 13, on stiff 
paper, cut it out, mark the veining 
of the leaves as in C, Fig. 13. Bend 
up sides and corners at dotted lines 
and with a stitch or two of thread 
fasten the corners of the basket to¬ 
gether. Make this leaf basket of 


Fig. 13 

make one for each place at the 
luncheon table; have them of any 
color you choose, but let the paper 
be substantial and stiff. The sides 
look well either plain or decorated. 
Cut the basket from pattern, Fig. 

15, bending all dotted lines. Paste 
the lapping bottom together, do the 
same with the two sides, and give 
the basket time to dry before using. 

Another mayflower basket, Fig. 

16, is equally charming. Mark a 5- 
inch square of paper, like Fig. 17. 
Cut heavy lines and bend dotted 
lines. The four corners, marked J, 
form the shelving triangles at top of 
basket. Use flowered, smooth paper 


white paper and 
paint it light 
green, veining the 
leaves in a darker 
shade; or you can 
have it of green 
paper with leaf 
veining done in 
pen and ink. 

The mayflower 
basket shown in 
Fig. 14 is an 
odd little affair; 


Mayflower Basket 


14 


in making these 
baskets, or white 
water color paper 
on which you can 
paint little rose- 
buds, powdered 
over the surface. 
Slide the ends of 
the handle, Fig. 
18, in slits H and 
E, Fig. 17; this 
finishes the 
work. 


763 












♦> 

♦♦ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Pattern for a Mayflower Basket 


6 



A Paper Vase 

The paper vase with classical 
lines, Fig. 19, must be of solid col¬ 
ored, stiff paper— 
bookcover paper is 
best—cut like the 
pattern, Fig. 20. 

Dotted lines indi¬ 
cate the laps at 
back of vase. Glue 
these together, 
then turn the han¬ 
dles over and fas¬ 
ten them down on 
the sides of the 
vase, as in Fig. 

19. Cut a disk of 
paper inch 
larger than the 
circumference o f 
the bottom edge 
of your vase. 

Slash the edge, 

Fig. 21; fit the 




bottom on the vase and glue the 
slashes up on the outside of the vase. 
Cover with a strip of same paper. 

You can make 
candle shades of 
paper that are as 
cheerful, pretty 
and attractive as 
those of silk or 
other material, 
and are inexpen¬ 
sive and easy to 
make. 

You will need 
circular pieces of 
paper for a num¬ 
ber of the shades, 
and by following 
directions given 
here, you can rea¬ 
dily turn a square 
piece of paper into 
a circular one. 

T a k e a 9-inch 


FlQ.lt 


V 

HANDLE 
OF BASKET 


♦V 


« 


764 








































k 


t>iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin LESSONS IN PAPER CUTTING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 

I For the Paper Vase 1 



FIG. 19 


square of paper, fold at center as 
shown in Fig. 23. Fold this at dotted 
line across center and it makes Fig. 
24. When this is folded diagonally 
at dotted line, it gives Fig. 25, and 
by folding again, you get Fig. 26. 
Cut Fig. 26 across the two dotted 
lines, top and bottom, open out, and 
you have the circle with open center, 
Fig. 27. Smooth this pattern out 
flat and use it as a guide for making 
some of your lamp shades. The lines 
on the pattern are merely those 
caused by folding the paper. 

Having .cut out one shade from 
smooth rose colored paper, fold it 


across the center, making a half cir¬ 
cle, again fold making a quarter cir¬ 
cle, again fold and you have an 
eighth circle, Fig. 28. Unfold and 
lap each crease over inch on bot¬ 
tom edge according to dotted line, 
Fig. 28. The next diagram, Fig. 
29, shows the method. When fin¬ 
ished, adjust the shade on the can¬ 
dle, Fig. 30. 

Cut more disks of corn-colored 
paper for a different set of candle 
shades; fold each shade in accordion 
pleats like Fig. 32. 

Again use the circular pattern for 
the pointed edge shade. Cut the 


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765 





















For Another Candle Shade 


FOt-D 


FIG. 2.6 






































f..... . .*. . LESSONS IN PAPER CUTTING ..in.......... 

| A Pretty Lamp Shade § 



disks from bright red paper, fold 
each shade in a half circle, then in 
a quarter circle, and lastly into an 
eighth of a circle, Fig. 28. Cut the 
bottom of this into one large shal¬ 
low point, Fig. 33. Open out and 
you have Fig. 34. Lap as in Fig. 
28 and 29. This makes a very 
pretty shade. 

One of the most attractive and 
simplest shades is fashioned from a 
lace edged paper doily, Fig. 35 - 
Cut an opening in the center of the 
doily candle shade, then lap the edge 
in pleats like Fig. 29. The lace 
edge of these shades can be tinted in 
different colors, combining varia¬ 
tions of pinks and greens, yellows 


and browns, etc. Again, the lace 
can be all of one color or one tint. 

The candle shade, Fig. 36, has a 
smooth surface without pleat or ruf¬ 
fle,* Fig. 37 is the pattern. It is 3^4 
inches deep and measures 11 inches 
across the spread from corner to cor¬ 
ner, from K to K. The back lap to 
be pasted on the opposite side is 
marked L. 

Brightly colored birds cut from 
wall paper are pasted on the white 
paper shade. Other designs cut 
from old discarded magazines or 
flower catalogs can be used. 

The paneled candle shade, Fig. 
38, is stenciled with cunning little 
white bunnies on a light blue back- 











































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii LESSONS IN PAPER CUTTING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiih55 


ground; Fig. 39 gives the pattern 
with dotted lines indicating where 
to bend the paper. 

All of the designs here given are 


attractive when used as dinner or 
dance favors, Christmas, birthday, 
New Year’s or Easter gifts and also 
as decorations. 


Queen Mab 


A little fairy comes at night; 

Her eyes are blue, her hair is brown, 

With silver spots upon her wings, 

And from the moon she flutters down. 

She has a little silver wand, 

And when a good child goes to bed, 

She waves her wand from right to left. 

And makes a circle round its head. 

And then it dreams of pleasant things — 

Of fountains filled with fairy fish. 

And trees that bear delicious fruit, 

And bow their branches at a wish; 

Of arbors filled with dainty scents 
From lovely flowers that never fade. 

Bright flies that glitter in the sun, 

And glow-worms shining in the shade; 

And talking birds with gifted tongues 
For singing songs and telling tales, 

And pretty dwarfs to show the way 
Through fairy hills and fairy dales. 

Thomas Hood 




LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 


STENCILING AND PRINTING 




How to Make and Use Stencils and 

Wood Print Blocks 


I AM stenciling a border design 
of a pink flower between two 
tender green leaves on a white 
dotted swiss bureau scarf. My 
pincushion cover is finished and 
greatly admired by my sister. The 
scarf will soon be done—it is a 
very dainty, pretty scarf and I am 
doing every bit of the work my¬ 
self. I even made the manila 
paper stencil, Fig. I—but that 
was almost as easy as the 
actual painting of the col¬ 


ored stencil on the bureau scarf. 

You can almost hear the little 
worker say this, as you see her in 
the photograph seated by the side 
of her sister, while carefully yet 
vigorously plying her brush. 

Stenciling is really very simple 
work, it is merely scrubbing over 
holes in a piece of paper with a 
brush covered with paint or dye. 
Of course, cloth is under the 
paper, so the brush rubs 
color on the cloth beneath 
































































































































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STENCILING AND PRINTING nnnnumiiiuinimiiiiinniiiniiinniiramniiniiiiiiniiiraniHimii®$ 


the open holes, and when 
you take away the paper, 
lo ! the cloth is beautifully 
decorated. 

We will choose for our 
first design one with sim¬ 
ple lines easy to make, 
like Fig. 2. This clover- 
leaf motif will need but 
one color, a soft green, 
not too dark, rather light 
in tone. It is always best 
for a beginner to use only 
one color on the first de¬ 
sign, but after learning 
how to handle the work, many 
colors may be used in different parts 
of one pattern. Regular stenciling 



colors come especially for the work, 
but tube oil paints or diamonds dyes 
give excellent results. The little 
stenciler in the picture is using cold 



water dyes, which come in tubes and 
are dissolved in water. The most 
popular kind of colors, however, are 
tube oil paints diluted with turpen¬ 
tine until completely dissolved, and 


the paint is more like a 
stain than paint. 

Always prepare suffi¬ 
cient paint or dye at one 
time for the entire work, 
as it is most difficult to 
match the first tint or 
shade in a second mixing. 
When more than one color 
is used, have a separate 
brush and a separate cup 
for each. 

Now let us make the 
stencil. Cut a piece of 
your smooth, heavy ma- 
nila wrapping paper, 6 % in. long 
and 4^/4 in. wide, measure *4 in. 
from each of the four side edges and 


F/G3 

draw light pencil lines across from 
side to side, forming a in. wide 
frame, Fig. 3. Notice where each 
of the three leaves and end of stem 


e 



FIG. 5 

touch the boundary lines on Fig. 4. 
Use Fig. 4 as a guide and draw in 
your cloverleaf pattern. 

Have sharp scissors for cutting 
out the design, begin by running the 





no. / 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw 


77 1 
























frjiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiii'niw 






point of one blade 
of the scissors 
through the low¬ 
er space of one of 
the leaves, Fig. 5, 
dot on leaf A. 

Cut toward top of 
leaf; then across 
as in leaf B. Cut 
off the slashes 
and make a large 
opening, leaf C, 
which gives space to use the scissors 
carefully to cut evenly and smoothly 
along the line of the design. Be 
cautious while cutting out the stem 
not to clip beyond the lines, because 
such a clip will let the paint come 
through on the cloth at the wrong 
place and spoil the stencil work. Cut 
little by little in short sections, as 
shown by cross lines on stem, Fig. 5 - 
When the entire clover leaf and stem 
have been cut out away from the 
paper leaving three even, smooth 
edged holes where the leaves were 
and one long narrow, smooth edged 
hole where the stem was, the paper 
will be a stencil. 

Place this stencil down flat on a 


smooth board and 
give it a coat 
of white shellac, 
then raise it care¬ 
fully, place it on 
another part of 
the board to dry. 
As soon as the 
stencil is perfect¬ 
ly dry, varnish 
the other side and 
all the edges; do 
not forget the edges, they are very 
important. Shellac stiffens the pa¬ 
per and makes the stencil durable 
and waterproof. 

When the stencil is absolutely dry 
on edges and both sides it is ready 
to use, and you can begin decorating 
your sash curtains of fine cream 
colored cheesecloth. First hem top 
and bottom edges, then lay a large 
sheet of white blotting paper over 
the table or lapboard on which you 
intend to work. Over the blotting 
paper place the cheesecloth right 
side up. Have it perfectly smooth, 
and try measuring with the stencil to 
find how often the pattern can be 
used across the bottom of the cur- 



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772 



















^iiiiiiiiiiinniiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiniiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniinniniin STENCILING AND PRINTING 

The Arrangement of “Motifs” 



F/G 9 FIG. // 


| tain, leaving the same sized space 
| between each print. Having ascer- 
| tained. this, drive a pin where the 
| center of each repeat should come, 
| Fig. 6. In this example the stencil 
| is turned and turned again in order 
| to bring the stencil up in every alter- 
| nate cloverleaf, Fig. 7. When 
| ready to begin stenciling, make sure 
| that the paper stencil lies absolutely 
| flat down on the cheesecloth. You 
| will want the decoration in a 
| straight line over the bottom hem, so 
| place the stencil just above the hem 
| and secure it by driving in a pin at 
| top and bottom and on each side of 
| each leaf, and at intervals on both 
| sides of the stem. Wherever the 
| stencil seems to rise, flatten it down 
| with a pin, Fig. 8. 

Have within easy reach your pre- 
| pared color, a stiff, short, stub, 
| bristle brush and a piece of old white 
| muslin—then commence work. Dip 
| the brush in the paint and imme¬ 


diately rub it on the old muslin to 
remove most of the moisture. If the 
brush is too wet, it will blur the out¬ 
line of your work. Be sure to wipe 
it on the muslin after each dip. 

Holding your brush firmly 
straight up and down, not slanting, 
begin at the left hand and scrub each 
opening until the cloth is of the right 
tint and the paint has penetrated en¬ 
tirely through the cheesecloth; then 
take out the pins, lift the stencil, and 
adjust it over the next pin which 
marks the spot where the pattern 
should come. Continue in this way 
until the border is finished. 

Fig. 9 gives the finished curtains 
with polka dots stenciled over the en¬ 
tire curtain above the border at un¬ 
even distances. You can make a 
polka dot stencil and use it on your 
curtain. Cut a perfectly round hole 
in a piece of paper, prepare it for 
use as a stencil and make the dots as 
in Fig. 9. This clover motif can be 


ii:-: 



773 






























77 4 



























f 1111111111111111 " 11 ."»»»»nniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiii STENCILING AND PRINTING mu ..... mi . . 


reversed, Fig. io, grouped Fig. II, 
used for an all over decoration alone 
or grouped, and it may simply be re¬ 
peated without turning, making the 
stems all stand down. 

The duck swimming on the water, 
Fig. 12, is fine for the playroom 
wall poster, toy chest, etc. It is a 


stencil invented by the writer espec¬ 
ially for you. Try it. Here is an¬ 
other idea. On a heavy wooden 
plate, stencil the pussy pattern, Fig. 
13. This pussy can also be used on 
the lid of a round box and other 
things. Fig. 14 is more difficult and 
is for you to try after having sten¬ 
ciled easier patterns. 

Remember, when making stencils, 
to always have little bridges or bands 
of the background reach across open¬ 
ings in the pattern to connect the dif¬ 
ferent parts of the background to¬ 
gether. Notice Fig. 15 is divided 
into many parts by the little bridges 
which are marked with the letter 
“O” that you may distinguish them 


from the design proper. There are 
ten bridges—count them—in com¬ 
mon with the other stencil patterns. 
1 his also was worked out for you, so 
be sure to use it. 

Stenciling may be made on almost 
any kind of material, except metal 
and rough surfaces. Wooden boxes, 
parasols, lamp shades, 
paper, linen frames, 
portieres, walls, splint- 
baskets, curtains, dress¬ 
es, bags, bedspreads, 
lunch sets, tablecovers; 
and on the following 
weaves, monkscloth, 
swiss, pongee, denim, 
scrim, cheesecloth, lin¬ 
en, unbleached muslin, 
silk and muslin, but 
not on velvet or plush. 

Block Printing 

No bridges are nec¬ 
essary for this work 
and you use wooden 
blocks to print with in¬ 
stead of a paper stencil. 
Find a very simple 
pattern, trace it on the 
level, smooth side of a soft pine 
block, in. thick and sufficiently 
large for the pattern. Rub a lead 
pencil lightly over the entire de¬ 
sign, taking great care not to 
mark the background. This lead 
pencil tinting will separate the pat¬ 
tern from the background so you 
will know which is which. With a 
sharp knife cut down into the sur¬ 
rounding background, following the 
outline of the pattern most careful¬ 
ly, bevel the edge as you cut, then 
cut another line close to the first and 
in this way make a narrow wedge- 
shaped trench % in. deep entirely 
around the pattern, after which you 
can cut away the background little 



Siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


77 5 
































































































































































Hi 


A ‘‘Beetle’* Block 



F/G. /7 


| by little, causing the design to stand 
| out well above the background. The 
| aim being to have the pattern in- 
I higher than the background, much 
| in the same way as the 
| letters of a rubber stamp 
| stand up higher than the 
| stamp itself, Fig. 16. 

| Your color pad will be 
| something like a rubber 
| stamp pad, and larger 
| than your printing block. 

| As a foundation use a 
| piece of wood about J4 in. 

| thick. Cover one side 
| with tightly pressed down 
| raw cotton. Glue it on 
| the board and over the 
| cotton glue a piece of 
| smooth level tin. On top 
| of the tin glue two layers 
| of felt, cover all with a 
| piece of muslin, bring it 
| down over the four sides 
| and glue it on the bottom 


(nfnfirfrffrrrrfrffrrfirmmfrrfrffffrfrirrfrmfrrffffffrrfrrfffrrrrrfrrrrmrrfnrff^ 

of the foundation. The top surface j 
of the pad must be absolutely § 
smooth. 

Either oil paint or water colors j 
may be used. Dilute water colors g 
with water slightly thickened with j 
dissolved gum arabic, but only suf- | 
ficiently so to cause the water to feel | 
a little sticky. 

The oil paint can be diluted g 
with turpentine, which should be | 
added gradually, constantly testing | 
the color on a piece of cloth. As j 
soon as the diluted paint is of the | 
right shade, spread it on your pad j 
with a flat bristle paintbrush; dip the | 
brush in the paint and sweep it back | 
and forth over the pad, until the | 
pad is well soaked, but not sloppy. 

Press the block on the pad and | 
test a print on a piece of testing | 
cloth taken from the material you j 
are to decorate. If the block is of | 
good size, hold it steady on the cloth | 
and strike it once with a hammer. | 
Unless the blow is sharp and quick | 
the print will not be clear. 


For a Rug Border 



PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


ft 




776 




V 

♦V 


♦V 


STENCILING AND PRINTING 

Probably you will have to experi- Simply fold a square piece of paper | 


ment, making - a number of prints be¬ 
fore obtaining a satisfactory one. As 
soon as your block prints a clear, 
perfect design, begin work on your 
rug, curtain or whatever you have 
selected for decoration, but before 
printing, place the cloth on a slight¬ 
ly springy surface. Several layers 
of smoothly folded newspapers will 
do nicely. 

When more than one color is 
needed there must be a separate 
block and a separate color pad for 
each color. 

Fig. i 7 is a simplified beetle print 
block design. A good design for the 
border of a solid colored ingrain, or 
other smooth surface rug is the orig¬ 
inal design, Fig. 18, made by cutting 
a folded piece of paper. You can 
make charming patterns in this way. 


and cut out portions of it. Open the | 
paper and your design will be made. | 
With a little practice you will catch | 
the idea and be able to make an end- | 
less variety of very beautiful de- | 
signs. | 

Fig* 19 gives a border of little | 
fluffy chicks printed with one block | 
on which is a design of one chick. 1 
The camel, Fig. 20, is a pattern for | 
block printing, also Fig. 21, the little | 
seahorse and Fig. 22, the elephant. | 
Block printing may be applied on | 
curtains, tablecovers, sofa pillows, j 
bags, bed covers, sash curtains, por- | 
tieres, screens, rugs, couch covers, j 
straw matting, etc., and on most wov- j 
en materials. Always experiment | 
on a waste piece of the material you § 
intend decorating to make sure the | 
print will work satisfactorily. 


Baby Chicken Block Border 






no. 19 


:*i 


♦ ♦ 


777 






A Block Printer’s Menagerie 





FIG. 2/ 


FIG. 22 












I 

LESSONS AT HOME AND AT SCHOOL 




1 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



What Food Does For Us 

and 

What We .Must Do To Food 



“Tidying Up” After a Meal 

“A clean kitchen is an absolute essential. Everything in the kitchen should be washable and 
kept clean as soap and water and scrubbing can make it. Dirty dishcloths and towels are 
nothing less than an abomination.” 


Y OU have eaten three meals a 
day most of your life, but 
can you tell what food is and 
what it does? 

Food gives us the material for 
building our bodies. It is also like 
the fuel in an engine, for it sup¬ 
plies the warmth of our bodies and 
gives them the power to work. 
When the engine wears out it 
must be sent to the repair shop, 
but our bodies are daily being re¬ 
paired by the food we eat. 


Does it surprise you to know 
that the many kinds of food that 
What y° u eat throughout 

Food the year—meats and 

Really Is fi shi 

eggs, milk, vege¬ 
tables, fruits and grains—are all 
made up of a very few substances ? 
These materials are called food 
stuffs. The food stuffs found in 
m-ilk are water, fat, sugar and 
mineral matter, and a substance 
called protein found in the curd. 
Protein is a substance that oc- 

























































































... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE liiiiiiiiiniiiiiii™ .& 


curs in the curd of milk, in eggs, 
in the lean of meat, in fish, in nuts, 
in the seeds of plants like the grains, 
and in peas and beans. It contains 
nitrogen, an element which is found 
in all living tissues. Although 
nitrogen is in the air around us and 
we draw it in with every breath, we 
breathe it all out again, and use it 
only in the form of protein, which 
will build the body and give energy. 

Fat gives the body energy and is 
sometimes called a fuel food. Fat 
is a substance with which we are 
familiar. It is found in butter, lard, 
cream, in the fat of meat, in olive 
and other vegetable oils. The fat of 
meat and cottonseed oil are the 
cheaper fats. 

Sugar and starch are two other 
substances that you easily recognize. 
These two materials, that look so dif¬ 
ferent from each other, are really 
very much alike and Mother Nature 
can turn one into the other. This is 
what happens in our bodies, for 
starch is changed into sugar before 


it is taken into the blood. These two 
food stuffs are called carbohydrates. 
Another carbohydrate is the fibre of 
our vegetable foods known as cellu¬ 
lose.- We do not digest this, but it 
gives bulk and in this way helps 
digestion. Starch and sugar are 
fuel foods, too, and they are the 
cheapest fuel foods. 

Water does not seem to you like a 
food stuff, perhaps. It does help to 
build the body, but it does not give 
us energy. 

Mineral matter or ash you cannot 
see in your food but if you burn any 
food material long enough there is 
an ash left behind like the ash from 
wood or coal. The substances found 
in the ash of food, are lime, potas¬ 
sium, iron, sulphur and so on. These 
mineral substances help in body 
building, but do not give energy. 
The foods that give us energy do so 
through a slow burning process. 
Water and ash cannot give energy, 
because they are themselves the pro¬ 
ducts of combustion. 


Table for Selection of Foods 

Here is a table that will help you to select foods: 
Example of food materials rich in each of the food stuffs. 


Proteins: 

Eggs 
Milk 
Cheese 
Lean meats 
Fish 
Fats: 

Cream 
Butter 
Meat fats 
Vegetable oils 
Nuts 

Yolk of egg 
Car bo hydrates: 

Cereals and cereal products 
Potatoes and other starchy vege¬ 
tables 


Chestnuts | 

Sweet fruits | 

Sugar | 

Mineral Matter: § 

Milk | 

Green vegetables 

Fruits | 

Whole wheat and other whole 
cereal products j 

Egg yolk j 

Water: 

Fresh fruits 

Fresh vegetables . . | 

Milk 

Beverages, including water as 
such 1 


^IlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllinillllllUllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllliniillinillllllllllllllllllinilllllllllllllllll^ 


780 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii domestic 

The Uses of Water 

Water helps to build the body, to 
| dissolve food, to carry off waste and 
| to keep the temperature of the body 
| even. About two-thirds of the 
| weight of the body is water. Drink 
| it freely every day and use it at 
| meals, even as much as a pint, but 
| swallow it when the mouth is empty. 

| When you have soup, milk or bever- 
| ages, drink less water at a meal. 

| Water must be clean. It should 
| come from a source where no filth 
| can contaminate it. Sometimes it is 
| necessary to boil water at least half 
| an hour, and cool it before drinking, 

| in order to destroy the germs of dis- 
| ease that are present. 

Use clean vessels for drinking. 

| Two people should never drink from 
| the same cup. The use of paper 
| cups, or the drinking fountain that 


SCIENCE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiinini^ 

needs no cup, is very important. Ice | 
must be watched as carefully as j 

Caution water, for freezing does | 

Sfibout Use not destroy germs of j 
°f Ice disease. It is better to | 

cool water on ice than to put ice | 
into the water. | 

Food Value of Milk 

Milk is an important food. Milk j 
is a perfectly balanced food for the | 
baby and young animals who have j 
nothing else to depend upon. It is a | 
desirable food for grown people, j 
Remember that it is food and not | 
drink only. If you think milk does | 
not agree with you it may be that | 
you take it as a beverage in addition | 
to quite enough of other foods. 

Milk must be clean, for typhoid | 
fever and other diseases are carried | 
in dirty milk. The cow must be in j 


A Class of Little Cooks 



Domestic Science is usually a popular study with girls. It is a part of the movement to teach 
children who leave school at their fourteenth year something which will really be of use to them in 
their future life, instead of simply preparing them for high school and college which they may 
never reach. This class is too large for all to be busy at once, so a few are chosen to demonstrate 
how the dish is prepared and another writes the recipe on the board, to be copied in notebooks and 
kept. 



781 









giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE Dimiiiiiiiiii* 


How to Test Eggs 



The best way to tell whether eggs are fresh or not is to hold them before a lighted candle in a 
dark room. This chart will help you. It shows how the egg looked when held before the candle and 
also after it was broken in a dish. Reading from left to right: 

1—A fresh egg. 2—Slightly stale egg showing evidence of incubation. 3—Stale egg showing a 
settled, flattened yolk and a thin white. 4—Egg with yolk beginning to adhere to shell. 5—Egg 
showing “blood ring.” 6—Cracked egg invaded by mold and the shell showing mold inside. 7—White 
rot or addled egg. 8—Egg with a green white. 


good health and kept clean. The 
stable, milker, all the utensils, must 
be absolutely clean. Milk must be 
cooled rapidly after milking and 
kept cool. 

If you have no ice for cooling 
milk at home, scald it to kill possible 
germs of disease and the bacteria 
that sour it. 

The digestibility of milk is not 
especially affected by cooking. 

One quart of milk equals in food 
value one pound of steak or eight 
eggs. At ten cents a quart it is an 
economical food. 

Cheese is manufactured from the 
curd of milk and has in it the most 


nutritive parts of the milk. It is a 
good meat substitute. 

Skim milk is valuable for cooking 
and contains everything in the milk 
but the fat. 

Sour milk is also useful in cook¬ 
ing. 

Value of Eggs 

Eggs contain all the food stuffs. 
If you have seen a young chick come 
from the shell you must realize that 
his little body has been nourished 
and built by the materials in the egg 
with something from the shell, and 
that he is strong enough to pick up 
his next meal. 

The food stuff in eggs are in such 


«i 




782 



















DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


form that they are easily digested 
and absorbed. They are very valu¬ 
able for little children, for people 
who are below weight, and for inva¬ 
lids recovering from an illness. 

Fresh eggs are not always easy to 
obtain. Find out if in your state 
there is a law to protect you from 
buying cold storage eggs for fresh. 
Perhaps you can buy them “parcel 
post” direct from some farm. 


In cooking eggs, if you wish a | 
delicate, jelly-like egg cook it below | 
the boiling point of water. 

A hard cooked egg takes longer to | 
digest than a raw or soft cooked egg, | 
but if chopped fine and properly j 
masticated it is digestible and a very | 
convenient dish to serve. If you | 
prefer a soft egg that is yet some- j 
what firm, cook it in boiling water | 
for four minutes. 


What Shall We Do About Meat and Poultry? 


Meat has become such an expen¬ 
sive food that we want to do without 
it if possible. We do not need it 
more than once a day, and people 
can keep well and strong without it. 
If you are in the habit of eating 

A Visit to the 


meat often, make the change from 
meat to other foods rather slowly. 
The meat substitutes are the other 
foods that contain protein. 

Tough and tender meat vary little 
in nutritive value except that tough 

Meat Market 


Here is a high school class in Domestic Science learning about meat at first hand, 
industriously they are taking notes on what the butcher has to say. 


See how 


783 




giiiimiiii ..... mi .... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE niiraimiiiiiiiiuiiiHUiinraiiuimiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiBiiiffliiiiinniraimiiiiiS 


The Different Cuts of Meat and What They Are Used For 



A. Sirloin 

1— Round bone sirloin, poorest sirloin 

2— Flat bone sirloin, next best sirloin 

3— Hip bone sirloin, best sirloin steak 

B. Porterhouse 

4— Club steak 

5— Tenderloin 

C. Rump 

6— Corning, best corning piece 

D. Round 

Used for steaks and pot roasts 

E. Top sirloin 

Used for steaks and pot roasts 


F. First prime ribs 

Good Roasts 

G. Second cut ribs 
Good roasts 

H. Chuck ribs—poorer roasts and steaks 

I. Neck—for beef tea, stews and boiling 

J. Brisket—corning 

K. Cross rib—pot roast 

L. Plate—corning 

M. Navel—corning 

N. Flank—stew or boiling 

O. Shoulder—soup 

P. Shin—soup 


meat contains somewhat more ma¬ 
terial than the tender. 

Tough meat comes from the parts 
of the animal’s body that are most 

j 

exercised, and tender meat comes 
from the less. Tough meat is cheap¬ 
er because it is less in demand. 

If meat is taken in excess, too 
much acid is formed in the body, 
and people who eat meat must be 
careful to take fruit and green vege¬ 
tables and plenty of water. Meat 
spoils easily and may contain bac¬ 
teria that gives us disease. State 
n and city inspection of 

Dangers J 1 

From meat and clean markets 

Meat should protect the con¬ 

sumer from this cause of meat poi¬ 
soning. Parasites like the tape¬ 
worm come from meat and these are 
destroyed by thorough cooking. The 
housekeeper must be careful to cool 


off cooked meat and broths rapidly, 
for in tepid mediums bacteria may 
develop. This is very important. 

In cooking tender meat the out¬ 
side surfaces are seared by intense 
heat, and the inner part cooked at a 
lower temperature. These processes 
are broiling, boiling, and roasting. 
In cooking tough meat we must use 
a lower temperature for a long time 
to soften the tough fibre. The pro¬ 
cesses are stewing, braising, and pot 
roasting. 

In soup making and in beef tea 
the juices of the meat should be ex¬ 
tracted by cold water which is slow¬ 
ly heated afterward. 

Over-cooked meat has a shrunken 
and hard fibre. Do not fry tender 
meat in fat, but use only enough fat 
to keep the meat from sticking to the 
pan. The tenderest meat cooked 


8IIIII11IIIIIIIIIPIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


784 







DOMESTIC SCIENCE .iiiiiiiiiiiniiiw t*: 


How Meat Should Look 






By studying the diagram of the steer divided into the different cuts, and comparing it with the 
pictures of the cuts on this and the next page, you can learn to know what you are buying and whether 
it is what you want or not. 

At the top are two pieces of round steak, (1) and (D) on the diagram. Below are the two best 
sirloins, (2) and (3) on the diagram. Compare the shape of the round and sirloin cuts with that 
of the Porterhouse on the opposite page. If you know how these cuts look, a dishonest butcher 
will never sell you a sirloin for a Porterhouse and charge you accordingly. At the bottom are the 
best rib roasts in the animal. 




785 

















In the top row are four different kinds of lamb chops, taken from different parts of the animal 
and three of the lower grades of steaks. The next two are roasts. The chuck rib roast is not so 
good as the blade rib roast on the right, which is taken from the vicinity of the seventh and eighth 
ribs. Notice how the meat is streaked with fat in the better roast. The last row on the dspis 
shows the two best cuts of steak. 

hard in fat is but little more digesti¬ 
ble than sole leather. 

In buying meats select that which 


is firm and with a good red or pink 
color, and poultry that is firm, with 
fat under the skin. Poultry that has 


^:ii!iiiii!iiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiii>iii!!iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii[[[iii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiniiiifiiiifiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


















ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH DOMESTIC 

| a dull colored, broken skin may have 
| been in cold storage too long. 

Cereal Products 

Breakfast foods made from grains 
| are a valuable part of the diet and 
| are manufactured from oats, wheat, 

| rice, corn, and sometimes barley and 

I rye- 

In cooking cereals, we need to 
| soften the fibre of the grain, and thus 
| make the other food stuffs easier for 
| the body to assimilate. The starch 
| grains are opened by the heat. 

How to Cook Cereals 

Flaked cereals need at least two 
| parts of water to one of cereal. 

| Granular cereals need three to four 
| times as much water as cereal. 

| Cracked wheat, coarse corn meal and 
| samp need from four to six parts 
| of water. One cup of dry cereal 
| is enough for three or four peo- 
| pie. A tablespoonful of salt to a 
| quart of water is a good amount. 
The water must be boiling and the 
cereal dropped in so slowly that the 
water does not stop boiling. When 
the cereal is thickened, cook it in a 
double boiler an hour or more. 

Cold cereals should not be wasted. 
They can be molded in small cups 
with fruit cut in slices and ma 4 e 
into small cakes mixed with beaten 
egg. They may also be used in 
muffins, yeast bread, and for thick¬ 
ening soup. 

How to Make Good Bread 

Yeast bread, made of good white 
flour, is so extensively used that it 
may still be called the staff of life. 

The Hour should be creamy in 
color and granular to the touch. A 
good mixture for bread is a combin¬ 
ation of dour made from spring 
wheat, which is planted in the spring 


SCIENCE UJiiiiiiiiiUiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirt^ 

and matures in the summer, and | 
winter wheat growing farther south | 
and living through the winter. 

The loaf should not be too large. | 
This gives a good crust and the loaf | 
is easily baked to the center. The | 
crumb of the bread should be | 

Why Loaves creamy and not snow | 
Should SVot white, and when it is | 
Be Too Large p ressec { between the bn- j 

gers it should be tender and elastic. | 
The crust should be even in color,— | 
a golden brown—and it should be | 
crisp and soft, but not hard and | 
tough. Here is one score card used j 
in judging bread: 

Bread Score Card 

I. General Appearance.15% | 


1. Shape . 2.5% 

2. Size . 2.5% 

3. Crust .10.0% 


(a) Color. 

(b) Smoothness. | 

II. Internal Appearance ....55% | 

1. Depth of crust. . . . 10% | 

2. Texture | 

(lightness) 15 % | 

3. Crumb .30% | 

(a) Moisture | 

25 % 1 

(b) Elasticity | 

(c) Color 5% | 

III. Flavor .30% | 

100% | 

Bread is a cheap food compared | 
with other foods. | 

In making bread at home the | 
necessary materials are hour, yeast | 
and liquid. You may add salt to | 
give flavor, a little sugar, and some- | 
times fat to make the crust more | 
tender. Nuts and raisins make a | 
pleasant variety, added to white or | 
whole wheat flour bread. 

Yeast is a tiny, one-celled plant. | 
In preserving fruit and vegetables | 


tSiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw .. 


787 









^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii^ 


we destroy it, but in making bread 
we cultivate it. The bread mixture 
gives it food and moisture, and if we 
warm the materials and keep the 

How Yeast dough at a temperature 
Makes Bread from seventy to eighty 
^’ se degrees, the yeast will 

bud and increase. As the yeast cells 
multiply they form a gas, which ex¬ 
pands and makes the whole mixture 
light. A little alcohol is also 


fourth to half a yeast cake to a loaf 
is allowable. All the materials should 
be warmed, thoroughly mixed, set in 
a covered bowl until the mass doubles 
its bulk. The dough must be kneaded 
by hand, or better by machine until 
it is smooth and elastic. It then can 
be divided, put into greased pans 
and left to rise again to double its 
bulk, when it is ready for baking. 
Kneading makes a fine grain, and 



Not only should girls learn to proportion and cook food properly, but they should know how 
to serve it daintily and well. The teacher is pouring coffee, three of the class are guests and two 
are serving the meal. 


formed, but the gas and alcohol pass 
off in baking. 

The proportions used in making 
bread are one portion of water to 
three of flour, which makes a loaf of 
good size. The liquid may be half 
milk and half water, in which case 
the milk should be scalded first and 
cooled to the proper temperature by 
adding the water cold. The larger 
the amount of yeast used the quicker 
the process of rising—from one 


some people knead the bread twice 
before it is put into the pans. The 
bread should be baked at a steady 
temperature of about 380° F., from 
three-fourths of an hour to an hour. 
This is what is called a moderate 
oven. 

The care of bread after baking is 
important. It should be cooled be¬ 
fore putting away and not eaten for 
twelve hours. Keep it in a stone jar 
or tin box, which should be scalded 


..Illl.. 


788 














giiiiiiifiiiiifiiiifM DOMESTIC 

| with boiling water before new bread 
| is put in. The bread may be covered 
| with clean paper to keep it from dry- 

I i n g- 

Stale bread may be used for toast, 

| bread crumbs, scalloped dishes, and 
| puddings. All pieces should be saved 
| for these purposes. 

Mixtures of flour with milk or 
| water, salt, sometimes eggs and bak- 
| powder, are called quick breads 
| —muffins, pop-overs, and so on. 

| Use of They are convenient and 

I Quk% Breads ma k e an agreeable 
| change, but they 
| do not take the 
| place of yeast 
| breads. 

Baking powder 
| is made of some 
| acid substance like 
| cream of tartar 
| mixed with bicar- 
| bonate of soda, and 
1 when these are 
combined with the 
liquid and heated, 
a gas is given off. 

The proportion of 
cream of tartar and 
soda is two to one. 

Sour milk and bi¬ 
carbonate of soda 
also give off the 
gas. A level tea¬ 
spoonful of soda to 
a cup of sour milk 
is about the right 
proportion. Acid molasses and soda 
behave in the same way, but the 
modern canned molasses contains no 
acid and baking powder must be 
used with it. In buying baking pow¬ 
der avoid the kinds that offer prizes. 
They may contain an inferior kind 
of acid and a large amount of starch 
or flour, only a little of which is 
necessary in any baking powder. A 


SCIENCE (fmfi(friiiiiff(i(iii((ii(inii({ii(((fn{n((f(in((ii(fmri(nirrifnf(fr(fiimrr(ii(iiiniiii[iiii^ 
standard kind from a well known 1 

_ =5 

firm is the most economical in the j 
end. 

Quick breads are more wholesome 1 
if reheated and not eaten just after | 
they are taken from the oven. This | 
is also convenient for the house- | 
keeper who may bake them the day j 
before and warm them over for | 
breakfast. This makes the crust | 
crisper and the crumb drier. 

Breads Made of Cornmeal 

We should use more cornmeal | 

than we do in our | 
quick bread, as it | 
is a wholesome j 
and economical ma- | 
terial. The corn- | 
meal ground in a | 
modern mill needs | 
rather more mois- | 
ture and more fat | 
than the old-time | 
meal ground be- | 
tween stones. If j 
you cook the corn- | 
meal thoroughly | 
before making the j 
muffins you will | 
find the flavor bet- | 
ter, and the muffins | 
less dry. | 

Fruit in the Diet j 

Fruit should be | 
eaten daily, for it i 
contains some of | 
the most valuable mineral substances. | 
In buying fruit select the least ex- | 
pensive, for the cheaper kinds are | 
just as useful as those with the fancy | 
prices. Apples are especially use- j 
ful in the diet. | 

Cooked fruit is more digestible for | 
many people than the uncooked and j 
this is especially true of little chil- | 
dren. Cooking softens the fibre and | 


Looking Over Berries 



Girls who have taken Domestic Science at 
school during the winter sometimes have 
ideas of their own about the way in which 
the summer supply of fruit should be 
canned. They can sometimes give their 
mothers valuable little hints about clean¬ 
liness and economy. This girl is picking 
over strawberries for preserves. 


8llillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllll!lllllll^ 


tvllll!llll!lll!!ll!ll!l!lllllllllllll!ll!llllllllllll!ll!llllllll!llll!llllll!lllll||||||ll!ll!l PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..* 


destroys disease-breeding bacteria. 

Canning and preserving processes 
are necessary, because they give us 
fruit and vegetables cheaply when 
they are out of season. 

We preserve food by destroying 
bacteria, yeast 
and molds 
th ro u gh th e 
application of 
heat and by 
sealing the 
cooked food 
material thus 
keeping out 
these lower 
forms of life. 

Preservatives are materials in the 
food which prevent the growth of 
these little organisms. The old- 
fashioned preservatives are sugar, 
salt, smoke, spices, vinegar and even 
alcohol. A little sugar causes fer¬ 
mentation because it gives food to 
the tiny yeast cells but a larger 
amount prevents their growth. Now¬ 
adays chemical materials are often 
used, and when these prove hurtful 
we should be protected by pure food 
laws. 

Drying also preserves food ma¬ 
terials because the tiny living cells 
need moisture just as we do, and 
cannot live without it. 

Food Stuffs Contained in Vegetables 

Vegetables are a valuable food. 
This list shows you what food stuffs 
vegetables contain: 

Seeds contain all the food stuffs 
high in protein. 

Roots and tubers contain all the 
food stuffs low in protein and fat, 
high in starch or some form of 
sugar. 

Rinds contain all the foodstuffs 
in small amounts. The mineral con¬ 
tent are the chief value. 


Of leaves and stems the mineral 
content is the chief value. 

In cooking vegetables we need to 
save the valuable mineral matter. It 
is better to use the iron found in 
spinach than to take it in doses from 

a bottle of med¬ 
icine. When we 
cook our vege¬ 
tables in boil¬ 
ing salted wa¬ 
ter and throw 
the water away 
we sometimes 
lose the most 
valuable part of 
our vegetables. 

Bake, steam and stew vegetables 
whenever you can because in this 
way no nutritive material is lost. 
Stewing is cooking in a small quan¬ 
tity of water, to be served with the 
vegetables, or thickened for sauce. 

Boil vegetables when they are old 
and you wish to be rid of a rank 
flavor. When you boil potatoes boil 
them with the “jackets” on. 

Time Table for Stewing and Boiling 

(Forr stewing and boiling unless 
stated otherwise.) 

Fifteen minutes. —Tender cab¬ 
bage and sweet corn. These are 
usually cooked too long. 

Thirty minutes. — Asparagus; 
peas; potatoes of medium size; sum¬ 
mer squash; tomatoes. 

Forty-five minutes. —Young beets 
and carrots; onions; young pars¬ 
nips; medium potatoes, baked; sweet 
potatoes, boiled. 

One hour. —String and shelled 
beans; cauliflower; oyster plant; 
winter squash, steamed or baked; 
young turnips. 

Two hours. —Old carrots, beets 
and turnips. 

Six or eight hours ( or more .)—- 


Is It Real Butter? 



Genuine butter boils quickly. Adulterated or imi 
tation butter melts, but is slow to boil. 


».♦ 

*♦ 


w 


790 



r 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




I Dried beans, lentils, and peas, baked 
j in the oven, with water added. 

Something About Meat Substitutes 

We have already studied the use 
| of milk and eggs instead of meat. 

Fish is a whole- 
! some and economi- 
j cal substitute for 
| meat in most cases. 

! It spoils rather eas- 
i ily, and people who 
| do not live by the 
sea and who can¬ 
not have a supply 
of fish from lakes 
and rivers should 
be careful in buy¬ 
ing fish. 

In buying fish 
see that it has been 
kept on ice, notice 
that the flesh is 
firm and the eyes 
bright. Notice the 
odor also. If in 
cooking there is 
a strong, tainted 
smell coming from 
the fish, do not use 
it. Canned, salted, and smoked fish 
is easily obtained and is very useful 
as a change from meat. If the top 
of the can bulges at all, do not buy 
it. The old-fashioned boiled salt cod¬ 
fish dinner with potatoes and beets is 
a simple and palatable meal. Notice 
in cooking fish that the connective 
tissue dissolves very easily, and that 
the fish is apt to fall apart. When 
fish is boiled it should be wrapped 
in cloth. 

Left over fish will make a pal¬ 
atable breakfast, luncheon or supper 
dish with bread crumbs, rice or 
mashed potatoes. 

Nuts are a simple and wholesome 
meat substitute. If cooked they are 


digestible for some people who can¬ 
not eat them raw. In any case they 
should be thoroughly chewed. They 
may be used in salads, in sand¬ 
wiches, put into bread and muffins 
chopped and mixed with stewed or 

raw fruit, or eaten 
with salt and with 
raisins for a dessert. 
It may be that 
some people con¬ 
sider them indi¬ 
gestible because 
they eat them be¬ 
tween meals or 
when they have 
partaken of quite 
enough meat food 
of other varieties. 
Remember that 
they are very rich 
in protein and treat 
them as a part of 
the meal in place 
of meat and you 
will probably have 
no indigestion. 

The Use of Salads 

Salads can be 
used on many oc¬ 
casions—for luncheon, dinner and 
supper. The salad made of crisp 
green vegetables, of cooked veg¬ 
etables, of fruit, of cold meat, fish, 
and of nuts served with a simple 
dressing make a pleasant variety in 
our diet. When made from cooked 
vegetables and left-over meat and 
fish, they are economical. They 
are wholesome when used as an es¬ 
sential part of the meal, and not as 
an extra when there is enough of 
other kinds of food. 

Green vegetables should be thor¬ 
oughly washed, thoroughly dried 
and cooled until thtey are crisp. All 
other materials should be cut in ] 
small pieces and chilled before they j 


How to Judge Food 



The can of plums is unsafe. It is prob¬ 
ably partly decayed. Gas has formed as is 
shown by the partly blown out top of the 
can. Don’t buy cans of food that look like 
this. They are dangerous. 




791 




^iiiiiiiiiiiiIIIIiiiih PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiilliiiliw^ 


are mixed and served on the green 
vegetables. The salad dressing may 
be nothing more than an acid with 
salt and pepper and an oil like olive 
oil or corn oih More elaborate dress¬ 
ings are made from an acid and oil 
mixed with egg either cooked or un- 

“Doing Up’ 


nin present will be lessened. 

Coffee contains caffeine which has 
somewhat the same effect as the 
theine. It also contains the tannic 
acid, and it is considered better to 
use a drip coffee pot or a percolator 
than to boil the coffee. 

the Dishes 



Part of the cooking lesson is to wash every dish used and to put it away in its place. The 
picture shows a class of older girls, each with her dish pan on one of the diminutive gas stoves. 


cooked. Butter may be used instead 
of olive oil in the cooked dressing. 

Beverages and Their Use 

Cocoa and chocolate are food as 
well as drink as they contain more 
or less fat—the chocolate more than 
the cocoa. 

Tea is an agreeable beverage that 
we probably shall not give up. It 
contains theine, the substance which 
keeps some people awake, and tannin 
which injures digestion. Do not boil 
tea, and never let it stand on the 
leaves more than three to five min¬ 
utes. In this way the amount of tan- 


Young people should avoid both 
tea and coffee, and grown people 
should not take them in excess. One 
cup of coffee for breakfast seems to 
have little effect on some people. We 
should all be better without them. 

Cereal beverages made from 
roasted grain give a pleasant hot 
drink in the morning, and are rec¬ 
ommended often as a substitute for 
the tea and coffee. 

What Shall We Have for Dessert? 

A dessert must also be looked 
upon as giving a part of the nourish¬ 
ment afforded by a meal. We give 


..1.........illllllllll.Illllllllllllllllllllllllllll.I.......... 


792 







i Pn 


DOMESTIC 

I this name “dessert” to whatever we 
| serve after the meat or meat substi- 
| tute and vegetable courses. 

Light desserts of fruit alone or 
| made into pudding with some starch 
| or with gelatine, belong at the end 
| of a meal where there has been a 
| large supply of meat and vegetables. 

Desserts containing more food ' 
| stuffs belong at the end of a meal 
| where there is little meat or meat 
| food. There are desserts made from 
j eggs and milk, milk puddings, suet 
| puddings, and pies where the fat in 
| the crust is an important food stuff. 

Pies need not be abolished pro- 
j vided the crusts are light and thor- 
| oughly baked. They should not be 
I gfstotJie eaten too often, certainly 
Eating of not three times a day, 
for then they take the 
| place of more desirable food. Used 
j once in awhile they are a useful 
| food. People who eat soggy, under- 
| baked pie crust probably will have 
| digestive troubles. It is a good plan 
| to use a top crust only. If you wish 
| a bottom crust too, bake that first, 

| having coated it over with a little 
| beaten egg. A still better way is to 
| bake a pie crust in small squares or 
| diamonds entirely by itself, serving 
| it with stewed fruit. Or, again, bake 
| the crust thoroughly in small patty 
| pans, and then put in the material 
| which is to give flavor. 

Something About Buying Food 

Visit the shops from which you 
| buy. Select clean places. All bakery 
| food should be under glass. Do not 
| buy any food that has been exposed 
| to the dust of the street. Insist that 
| the grocer and the market man shall 
| have screened windows and doors. 

| Notice if the market has floors, 

| walls, and so on, that can be readily 
I washed. Has the market man or the 


SCIENCE 

fish man a good cold storage place? 
The odor in a meat or fish market 
will soon tell you whether the place 
is clean or not. 

Study very carefully those places 
that advertise special sales, bargains 
and cut rates. It may be that these 
are all right, but sometimes inferior 
Select goods are put into the 

Reliable bargain sale. Bargain 
Dealers eggS are some ti me s a 

mixture of large and small, semi¬ 
fresh and decidedly stale eggs. In 
large cities it is true that on Satur¬ 
day evening good material can be 
bought at a low rate. 

Have a set of weights and meas¬ 
ures at home to protect yourself. 
The Federal Government passed a 
law in 1914 requiring that all goods 
purchased in packages shall have 
Checking their weight stated upon 
Weights and them. There are, how- 
Measures ever, many tricks of the 

trade, and the only way that you can 
be sure of getting your money’s 
worth is by having a standard set 
and weighing what you purchase. If 
your dealer knows that you are do¬ 
ing this he probably will give you 
honest weights and measures. No¬ 
tice how your meat is trimmed. 

When food is kept at home it must 
be kept clean and dry, and per¬ 
ishable food must be kept cool. Have 
a good refrigerator if possible. If 
you cannot have this, perishable 
foods, like milk, meats and fish must 
be purchased in small quantities. The 
semi-perishable foods—butter, eggs, 
and cooked foods—will keep for a 
time outside of the ice box, but must 
be in the coolest place possible. A 
window-box will help, especially if 
netting is inserted to allow a current 
of air. Have glass jars and tin boxes 
for keeping other kinds of food. The 
amount that you can keep on hand 


♦» 




♦♦ 


793 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!i:i:iiiiiiii!iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED 

| depends upon your storage space. It 
| is cheaper to buy in quantity if you 
| have a large pantry. 

Clean hands and clean clothing 
| are absolutely essential for those 
| who do the handling of the food and 
| the cooking. 

A clean kitchen is also an absolute 
| essential. Everything in the kitchen 
| should be washable and kept clean as 
| soap and water and scrubbing can 
| make them. Dirty dish cloths and 
| towels are nothing less than an 
| abomination. Where there is plenty 
| of boiling water, dishes should be 
| dried on a rack and the dish towel 
| abolished as much as possible. This 
| is the safest practice according to 
| the latest scientific investigations. 

How Shall We Plan Our Meals 

The daily planning of meals is 
| indeed the hardest question of all. 
| We may buy food economically, we 
| may cook it palatably, but if we do 
| not make good food combinations in 
| proper quantities for the family, we 


KNOWLEDGE 

have not yet learned all of our food g 
lessons. j 

A meal may be defined as an | 
assemblage of several kinds of food | 
served together at one time. Meals | 
should be regular. It is not only im- g 
portant to have meals at just the | 
same time every day on the house- | 

About the keeper’s account, but for j 
Sunday our own health. Meals g 

SvLeals 0 f the same amount | 

should be eaten at the same time | 
each day. The change on Sunday of | 
the time and kind of meals is fruit- j 
ful of much discomfort on Monday. | 
Try to make some plan for having | 
all Sunday meals at the same hours | 
as week days. If the family must | 
have an extra nap on Sunday try to j 
arrange so that it comes at some | 
other time of day rather than at the | 
morning hour. | 

Breakfast, luncheon and dinner, | 
or breakfast, dinner and supper are | 
the three standard American meals. j 
Here are three sets of plans for j 
these meals: 


Typical Breakfast Plans 


I 

II III 

IV 

V 

Fruit 

Fruit Fruit 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Toast 

Cereal Meat 

Cereal 

Cereal 

Beverage 

Toast Toast 

Meat 

Meat 

i 

Beverage Beverage Toast 

Beverage 

Typical Luncheon Plans 

One other hot 
dish 

Toast 

Beverage 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

Hot dish 

Hot dish 

Soup 

Soup 

Bread and butter Bread and butter 

Another hot dish 

Two other hot 

Beverage 

Simple dessert 

Bread and butter 

dishes 


Beverage 

Dessert 

Salad 



Beverage 

Dessert 

Beverage 


£llll!lllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


794 


:* 


I 

Two hot dishes 
(meat and veg¬ 
etable) 

Bread and butter 
Beverage 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
Typical Dinner Plans 

II 

Soup 

Two or three other hot 
dishes (as meat and 
one or two vege¬ 
tables) 

Bread and butter 

Dessert 

Beverage 




111 I 

Soup | 

Two or three hot dishes | 
A relish (as jelly or | 
pickle) | 

Bread and butter j 

Salad | 

Dessert | 

Beverage | 


You can see that all the food 
stuffs are present in all these meals 
in whatever form. Where there are 
fewer dishes there must be more of 
each single dish. One can observe a 
few simple rules that will help to 
give variety. It is natural for us to 
seek variety and to object to meals 
that are quite alike day after day. 
Take one of the dinner plans, for in¬ 
stance; have one vegetable a starchy 
vegetable like potato, or have rice or 
hominy in place of potato once in 
awhile. Have one of the two vege¬ 
tables green like spinach or aspar¬ 
agus in season. Do not have two or 
three of the root vegetables together 
like beets, turnips and carrots. If 
you have an acid soup at the begin¬ 
ning of the meal do not end it with 
an acid fruit. If you have a milk 
soup at the beginning of the meal do 
not have a milk dessert at the end. If 
there is meat left over for another 
meal, and you have a place to keep it 
without spoiling, do not serve it at 
the next meal. 

Some of our natural desires are 
proved to be good by science, as for 
instance our liking bread with but¬ 
ter; of potatoes and gravy with meat; 
of something acid with fish; of cran¬ 
berry sauce with turkey; of apple 
sauce with pork. On the other hand 
some of our habits and tastes are not 
a safe guide. Griddle cakes with 
maple syrup, followed by sausage or 


8 


pork chops, are a poor combination | 
except for some person with strong j 
digestion who has to work with his | 
muscles in the open air all day. | 
This leads us to the next question. | 

Different Diet for Different People 

Different people need different | 
kinds and amounts of food. A small | 
person needs less food than a large | 
one. Men seem to require more | 
food than women. A man working | 
hard all day in the open air needs j 
more food than a man sitting at his | 
desk, and can digest foods that a | 
person living in doors can not. The j 
baby and the child need less food | 
than the grown-up, but it must be of | 
a kind that builds the body, like | 
milk, eggs and grains. | 

How can we measure our food? | 
Scientists have learned to measure j 
the amount of energy needed daily | 
by people of all ages and sizes, and | 
they know how much energy each | 
kind of food will yield. The energy | 
is expressed in terms of heat and | 
the heat is measured by a unit, just | 

Measuring as we measure heat by j 
the the degrees of a ther- | 

Energy mometer, or the length j 

by the inches on a foot rule. The | 
unit taken is enough heat to raise j 
one pound of water 4 0 F.; or one | 
kilogram of water 1° C. This heat j 
unit is called a calorie, which comes j 
from a Latin word calor, heat, and | 

4 


7 95 


giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiilito PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiK 

| it means nothing but a heat unit. five, showing how many calories | 

Here is a table for a family of they need a day. j 



Food Requirements 


Members 
of Family 

Age 

Weight 

Total Calories 

Protein Calories 

Man . 

. 40 

154 

2680 

268-402 

Woman . 

• 38 

120 

2160 

216-324 

Girl . 

. l6 

110 

2200 

220-330 

Boy . 

. 12 

75 

2250 

225-338 

Boy . 

. 6 

40 

1600 

160-240 

Total requirements 

• 


10,890 

1089-1634 

Milk . 

Calories 

.. . .20 

Food 

(6 for each child, the rest for the adults.) 

Cereal. 

Eggs (for children 

.... 5 

2 

(One quart of milk yields 6^/4 portions.) 

Counting 2-3 portion per egg. 


Fruit . 5 

Green vegetables.2 

Meat or meat substitute. 5 

Bread .15 

Butter.15 


The energy given by the protein 
| is put in a separate column to warn 
| us against eating too much protein, 
| especially in the form of meat. Let 
| us now take a list of the foods that 
| we should be likely to have in one 
| day, allowing for the children the 
| materials that make for growth. 

100-Calorie Portions 

The ioo-calorie portion is con- 
| venient to use in making up menus. 
| Roughly speaking an ordinary slice 
| of bread is 100 calories. A square 
| piece of butter that we put on a but- 
| ter plate is 100 calories. An ounce 
| of cream cheese is about 100 calor- 
| ies. About 2-3 of an ordinary glass 
| of milk, weighing a little over five 
| ounces is 100 calories. A very large 
I e gg gives 100 calories. 

Here are menus made up with the 
I kind of food that should be included. 


Menu No. I: 

Breakfast 

Oranges 
Flaked Wheat 

Twice baked rolls and butter 
Milk for children 


Luncheon 

f 

Creamed salmon on toast 
Peas 

Graham bread and butter 
Stewed pears 
Milk to drink 


Dinner 

Clear tomato soup 
Roast beef 

Mashed potatoes, string beans 
Cabbage salad 

Lemon jelly, whipped cream 
Milk for children to drink 


\ 






796 















t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ DOMESTIC 

SCIENCE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 

Menu No. II: 

Cocoa 


= 

Breakfast 


Dinner 

=5 

1 Grapes 

Julienne soup 


M 

1 Oatmeal 

Roast beef 


n 

| Toast with butter 

Creamed macaroni, spinach 

1 Cereal cafe au lait for children 

Celery and nut salad 

= 

= 

Pineapple ice, 

lady fingers 

n 

Luncheon 

Milk for children to drink 

s 

I au gratin 



if 

| Stewed tomatoes 

Following 

this is a table which 1 

| Bread and butter 

will show you how to calculate ioo g 

| Raspberry tapioca 

calorie portions: 

— 

§ 

ioo-Calorie 

Total 

Protein 

Food Material 

Portions 

Calories 

Calories 

Oranges . 

- 2.5 

250 

28 | 

Flaked wheat . 

. ... 5.0 

500 

74 

Rolls . 

. ... 5.0 

500 

61 

Milk for children. 

. . . . 6.0 

600 

1 14 

Thin cream for cereal. 

- 5.0 

500 

26 

Butter for rolls. 

. ... 5.0 

0 

0 

VO 

5 1 

Sugar for coffee. 

. . . . 1.0 

IOO 

• • 

Creamed salmon 



Ejj 

Salmon . 

- 3.0 

300 

160 

S Milk . 

. . . . 2.0 

200 

3 S I 

Flour . 

. ... 0.3 

33 

4 I 

Butter. 

. . . . 2.0 

200 

2 

§ Toast . 

• ... 3 -o 

300 

43 I 

Peas . 

. ... 2.5 

250 

70 

Butter for peas. 

. . . . 1.0 

IOO 

1 

Graham bread . 

.. .. 5.0 

500 

68 i 

Butter for bread. 

- 5-0 

500 

5 1 

Pears . 


250 

8 

Sugar for pears. 

... . 2.0 

200 

• • 

Milk to drink. 

. . . . 6.0 

600 

114 | 

Tomato soup 



1 

Tomatoes . 


50 

10 

Butter. 

. . . . 2.0 

200 

2 

Flour . 


33 

4 

Roast beef . 


500 

138 

Mashed potatoes . 


500 

52 

I Milk . 

. . . . 1.0 

TOO 

19 


.... 1.0 

IOO 

1 

String beans . 


50 

11 

Butter for beans. 

.... 1.0 

IOO 

1 



0 

0 

VO 

72 | 



O 

O 

VO 

5 3 

.... .... 


797 

































SSI 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


Food Material 

100 Calorie 

Total 

Protein 

Cabbage salad 

Portions 

Calories 

Calories 

Cabbage . 

. 0-5 

50 

10 

Lettuce . 

. 0.1 

10 

• • 

Heavy cream for dressing. 

. 2.0 

200 

4 

Lemon jelly 




Gelatine . 

. 0.5 

50 

45 

Lemon juice. 

. 0.1 

10 

• • 

Sugar . 

. 40 

400 

• • 

Whipped cream 




Heavy cream. 

. 3-0 

300 

7 

Milk to drink. 

. 6.0 

600 

114 



10,583 

1,286 


tj 


Of course it is not to be expected 
| that any housekeeper can do this 
| every day, but if she will take a little 
| trouble to check up her meals she 
| will soon learn whether or not she is 
| giving her family enough or too 
| much of any one kind of food. 

The Cost of Meals 

It does not follow that because we 
| spend a great deal on our meals that 
| we are getting the best value for our 
| money. In an investigation of all 
| costs it was found that some people 
| who are spending as much as eighty 
| cents per capita are not giving 
| enough mineral content to their fam- 
| ilies. They are not so well off as 
| women spending only eighteen to 
1 twenty-five cents per capita per day 


and buying the plainest of foods. | 
The smaller the income the higher j 
percentage must be paid for food for | 
we cannot go below a certain amount j 
per day and be nourished. Food | 
prices have risen so tremendously in j 
the last decade that nourishment | 
cannot be provided below eighteen | 
to twenty-five cents per capita per | 
day. The only way to keep the en- j 
ergy and body building values is to | 
substitute cheaper materials right | 
through; less butter and cream, more | 
beef fat and cottonseed oil. The | 
cheaper cuts of meat, vegetables in ] 
season, or dried and canned, out of | 
season. Remember that bread al- | 
ways ranks among the cheaper foods | 
on account of its great food value. | 
Here is a table that shows this: 


Amounts of Protein and Energy Obtained for Ten Cents Expended for Bread and 

Other Foods at Certain Assumed Prices Per Pound 


SSI 


ioc worth will contain 




ioc will 


Fuel 



buy 

Protein 

value of 

Food Materials 

Price 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Calories 

Wheat bread. .$0.05 

per lb. 

32.0 

2.9 

2400 

Cheese .22 

per lb. 

7-3 

1.9 

886 

Beef, average. . .20 

per lb. 

8.0 

1.2 

467 

Porterhouse stk. .25 

per lb. 

6.4 

i -3 

444 

Dried beef.25 

per lb. 

6.4 

.1 

315 


V 

♦♦ 


798 
















DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


ioc worth will contain 
ioc will Fuel 

buy Protein value of 


Food Materials 


Price 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Calories 

Eggs . 

.24 

per lb. 

10.0 

i -3 

198 

Milk . 

.09 

per qt. 

38.3 

1.2 

736 

Potatoes . 

.60 

per bu. 

160.0 

• • • 

2950 

Apples. 

.o }4 

per lb. 

320.0 

• • • 

1270 


It is only through the most careful planning and buying and the using 
of meat substitutes that money can be saved and the nutrition value kept 
up to standard. 


iitt 


As Regular as a Clock 

When things go just a certain way, 

As steady as can he, 

They’re “regular as a clock,” we say; 
Now, that’s what pussies me. 

A clock’s not regular at all; 

I know this for a fact — 

So don’t depend upon it when 
You want to be exact. 

Now, our clock, why it’s just as sure, 
When I am having fun, 

And bedtime hour is drawing near, 

To break into a run. 

And through the night it gallops on 
Until, to my surprise, 

It’s morning, and I know that I 
Have hardly closed my eyes. 

Then when I go to see the boys — 

I often wonder why — 

The hours go by so very fast, 

They seem to fairly fly. 

But then, sometimes, when I’m in school 
It’s just the other way; 

The old clock goes so slow, so slow, 

It seems the longest day. 

And when it’s near vacation time. 

That is the worst of all; 

It’s slower than the slowest snail; 

It scarcely seems to crawl! 

A clock’s not <e regular” at all; 

I know this for a fact — 

So don’t depend upon it when 
You want to be exact. 



799 











yspj 


800 











LESSONS at home 
and at school 

M ANUAL T R A INING 


The Boy and His Workshop 




a Public School 

he would otherwise buv. He will 
also be able to make many things 

The Joy of not e: ; sil y purchased, 

“Making for himself, for his 

Thmgs home, and for his 

friends. There is’ a certain de¬ 
light in making and doing for 
one’s self that is gained in no 
v other way. Things you make 













































































































































t'^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiii^ 


you prize much more highly than 
those you buy, for into them you 
have built a part of your own self 
—your thought, your labor, and 
your skill. They are your attempt 
to do as your primitive ancestors 
did, to make your material surround¬ 
ings better suited to your needs. 

The Educational Value of Making Things 

Besides the satisfaction, the ex¬ 
perience of making and doing is of 
the greatest educational value to a 
boy, for by it he becomes familiar 
with many of the tools and materials 


begin. Much may be done with 
only a few of the more common 
tools. Of course it is best to have 

Elaborate some r00m or corner of 

Outfit Not a shed or basement that 
Necessary may be considered the 

workshop, but even this may be left 
out at first. The things essential for 
the beginner are a clean, roomy, dry 
place in which to keep tools when 
they are not in use, a few good tools, 
a little inexpensive lumber, some 
nails and an ample and permanent 
supply of determination and “stick- 
to-it-ive-ness.” 


Fig. 1. A Well Equipped Work Bench 



of industry. His interest in the 
world of construction and artisan- 
ship is awakened, for he has him¬ 
self become a part of it. But, best 
of all, he is forming habits of self- 
reliance, perseverance, and thor-: 
oughness that will stand him well in 
hand, no matter what vocation the 
later years of his life may call him 
to take up. 

Now it is not essential to have an 
extensive equipment with which to 


Assuming that my young reader 
has the first and the last two of 
these items, let us secure the others 
and begin doing and making things. 

While it will be possible, later, for 
you to make your own work bench, 
you will need one almost at the start. 
Ai out For this reason it will be 

the Work the best plan to have one 
‘Bench made by some local 

carpenter or, better still, to secure 
one similar to the one shown in Fig. I, 


£||||||||||||||||IIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!II!IIIIIIII!II!IIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIII!M 


802 





which is the kind used in 
all manual training 
schools. Your local hard¬ 
ware dealer will secure 
one for you. If you have 
one made, it should be 
about 5 feet long by 2 
feet 4 inches wide by 2 feet 
and 8 inches high, and a 
side vise and a tail vise 
similar to those shown in 
Fig. i should be provided. 
The tail vise should have 
an adjustable peg in line 
with a row of peg holes in 
the bench top. Place the 
bench where there is good 
light and fasten it securely 
to the floor. 

To start with, obtain 
from your hardware deal¬ 
er, in a good quality, the 
following tools: a 16- 
ounce, bell face, adze-eye 

Selection hammer; a 2- 

of the foot fourfold 

Too ^ s ruler; a car¬ 

penter’s steel square; a try 
square with 6-inch blade; 
a marking gage; a 14- 
inch, corrugated bottom, 
iron jack plane; and two 
hand saws—one a 24- 
inch, 7-point, crosscut saw 
and the other a 26-inch, 
5 / 4 -point, rip saw. You 
can see by the illustration 
the exact size and shape 
of the teeth and the dif¬ 
ference in appearance in 
these two saws. 

Just a word about your 
plane and how to remove 

The Care the blade for 

of the sharpening. 

‘Plane The bottom IS 

called the sole, the front 
end the nose, the back end 


♦V 



JFace 



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TTTTTTT 

TIT] IT T 

TTTTTTT 

TTTTTT 

1 1 1 

0 NS 1 to 

9 

8 

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l . 9 

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t 

1 h 1 1 it 

tti Ittt 

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n 1 hTr 



oat Four- JToZd ' /EW© 




Carpenters Stee l Square 


Try Scjuare 


Marki ng <5age 



Saw Teeth Shown F'uZl Siz & 


803 












































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiuiiiiiiimiiranBimiiiiHnimnniiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiBiiiiiiK^ 

3 3 



Garden-Line or Clothes-Line Winder 
















































































































MANUAL TRAINING 


o 



\ 3 


I 

= 

= 



PLAN 4. SWING SEAT 


PLAN 5. ONE BUSHEL CRATE 



























































































































t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ 




| the heel, the opening 
| for the shavings the 
| throat. Underneath 
| the handle is the set- 
| screw which “drives” 
| or “draws” the blade 
| so that it will take a 
| thick or thin shaving. 
| Above the handle is a 
| little lever that sets 
| the blade edge square- 
| ly across the sole. The 
| part that holds the 
| blade in place is called 
| the wedge. To remove 
| this, release the little 
| lever at its top. The 
| blade and cap may 
| now be taken out. 
| The purpose of the 
| cap, which is fastened 
| to the top of the blade, 
| is to break or curl the 
| shaving. The plane 
| would not cut smooth- 
| ly without it. The 


Setting a Plane Blade 


After a plane blade has been sharp¬ 
ened, it should be fastened to its cap 
and very carefully replaced in the 
plane to avoid dulling the edge. After 
the wedge is locked in place with the 
setscrew underneath the handle, ad¬ 
just the blade so it will project only a 
hair’s breadth below the sole. 


space between the 
edge of the cap and 
the edge of the blade 
should be about 1/16 
of an inch. To re¬ 
move the cap-screw, 
use the point of the 
wedge as a screw¬ 
driver. Separate the 
cap and blade, sharp¬ 
en the latter and ad¬ 
just for work as ex¬ 
plained in Fig. 2. 

To start you will 
need to have some 
local mechanic sharp¬ 
en your saws and jack 
plane, for these tools 
are never properly 
“fitted” when they 
come from the hard¬ 
ware store. But soon 
you will be able to 
“fit” your own plane 
blades and other 
edge tools,” which is 






806 









































































































^Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll MANUAL TRAINING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw 



Plate IV 

Plan 7. Seed Germinating Box. Plan 8. Bird House. 























































































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE llliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii^ 


as shown below in Figs. 3 and 4. 

Nails are known as common nails 
—those with large flat heads, and 
finishing nails—those with small 
Kinds of heads that can be set 

Kails even with the surface. 

You Need As j - 0 s j ze> they are called 

“2-penny,” “3-penny,” and so on. 
You will need a small quantity of 2-, 
3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 8-, and io-penny in 
both kinds. Label each package. 


kinds to secure from the lumber 
yard. Have the lumber “dressed” 
on two sides to the thickness desired. 
A good convenient supply will in- 

Study clude some V\"> H"> 

Your y 2 ", yy, y 4 ", and yy. 

Stoc\ List Notice the stock list with 
each drawing. For some of the pro¬ 
jects, especially the pieces of furni¬ 
ture made from oak, it will be best 
to have the stock cut to the dimen- 


Figs. 3 and 4. How to Hold Chisels and Plane Blades to Sharpen 


These illustrations show clearly how to hold chisels and plane blades to sharpen on the oil stone. 
Where only one stone is used it should be of medium grit. It is better to have tw»—one coarse for 
rapid sharpening and the other fine for finishing. Sharpen with a rotary movement on the bevel 
side of the tool as in Fig. 3. Keep the bevel flat on the surface until nearly through, when the 
handle may be raised a trifle for the last two or three strokes. 

A rough-turned edge will be produced, which must be reduced as indicated in Fig. 4 Be sure 
to keep tool perfectly flat on stone. Beveling the tool on this side will spoil it. You may have to 
reverse the tool several times before you obtain a smooth edge. The last strokes should be very 
light ones from the bevel side. 

Keep the points of chisels square. The points of plane blades should have the corners a little 
shorter than the center. 

After tools have been “stoned” until the flat bevel has been destroyed or much shortened they 
must be reground. ’ 


In this way you will soon learn to 

know the various sizes at sight. 

Later vou can make some boxes with 
* 

compartments to hold nails, screws, 
and other small hardware. 

The Supply of Lumber 

As to the lumber, for the first 
roughly finished out-of-door things 
‘Packing s o m e inexpensive soft 
Boxes wood will be best. Some- 

5Vfay Do times packing boxes that 
can be had from the local stores can 
be used, but be sure to remove all the 
nails. Basswood, spruce, and “sec¬ 
ond-growth” soft pine are the best 


sions here given at the mill. 

How to Read Working Drawings 

Speaking of drawings, if you have | 
ever observed carpenters or me- 1 
chanics at work, you have no doubt | 
noticed the “blue prints” to which | 
they constantly refer for directions. | 
These blue prints are working draw- | 
ings that give dimensions and all 1 
other information needful for con- J 
struction. As it will be necessary i 
for you to work from such drawings, | 
suppose we next learn to read work- j 
ing drawings. 

In Plate IV, Plan 7, is a photo- | 


18 


808 





♦ ♦ 




I i 
i t 


MANUAL TRAINING 


♦v 


small dot are center lines. Note | 
their location in each view. The | 
broken medium lines with arrow | 
heads at each end are the dimen- | 
sion lines and are drawn between the I 
extension lines. In the dimension 1 
lines are placed the dimensions that | 
show the sizes of each piece and | 
other measurements needed in put- | 
ting the box together. | 




Fig. 5. Using the Crosscut Saw 

This boy has a very good working position for 
sawing. Notice the direction of the forearm— 
straight with the saw. In starting the saw, steady 
it against the left hand and touch the wood but 
lightly. In cutting off long heavy pieces be care¬ 
ful that they do not split off at the last of the cut. 

graph of a box suitable for soil in 
which to plant seeds in the early 
spring, and the working drawing 
of this box. Notice that there are 
three views, the top, the front 
and the end. Sometimes objects 
may be fully described by only 
two views, as the label stake in 
Plate I, Plan I ; others need sec¬ 
tion views and detail sketches, as 
the dog kennel in Plate III, Plan 
6 . Notice that all the edges that 
can be seen from any one of the 
three view points are represented 
in that view by full heavy lines. 
Edges that are invisible are com- 
jy ie posed of short, heavy 

Meaning dashes, e. g., in the 
of the Lines f r0 nt view the invis¬ 
ible ends of the end boards. Ex¬ 
amine other drawings for visible 
and invisible lines and think out 
what they mean. Fine lines 
made up of a long dash and a 






Fig. 6. Edge Planing 

In edge planing, or “jointing” as it is often called, 
assuming that your plane is properly sharpened and 
set, grasp it firmly in the manner shown in the il¬ 
lustration. Begin with the nose only, on the end of 
the surface to be worked, so that the blade may begin 
to cut at the very end of the board. Press on the 
front end at the beginning of the stroke and on the 
rear end of the plane at the close of the stroke. Take 
strokes the entire length of board. You will not get 
a shaving the whole length until several strokes have 
been made. A thin shaving the whole length will in¬ 
dicate that'the edge has been jointed. “Sight” along it 
as you would along a gun to see if it is straight. If 
you carelessly allow the plane to drop at either end of 
stroke it will be high in the middle; do not worry over 
making it hollowing. 

If testing with the try square shows one side to 
be higher than the other, move (do not tip) the plane 
over so the middle of the blade will reduce the high 
edge. 




^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE miiuiniuiiuimuniiiiiumimumuiraiiiiuiiuiiiiiuiiiiiirauiiiiiiBiiii^ 



This illustration shows the method of testing edge 
of board with corner of plane to see if edge of board is 
straight. 

Study these dimensions until you 
discover the facts given in the stock 
list. Find how far the end board is 
placed from the end of the box. 
Notice that when similar dimensions 
are alike, they are not repeated; for 
example, thickness is shown on but 


How to Use Your Tools 


To explain the use of tools in 
written language is very diffi¬ 
cult, so you must examine care¬ 
fully the pictures of the boys at 
work, Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,. 10, II, 
12, 13, and 14. Notice particularly 

Notke How the position of the boys, 
These Boys of their hands, and of 
Are Domg It tools and lumber. 

Study the note of instruction 
under each picture and whenever 
you get a chance watch carpen- 


Fig. 7. Testing Trueness 


one side board. Sometimes if 
the stock of an entire project is 
all of the same thickness, that 
fact is stated in the stock list and 
omitted from the dimensions on 
the drawing. 



This shows the method of holding the try square 
j| for proving if a surface be squared with the face 
H of the stock and true. Hol4 the handle of the 
H square firmly against the face side or edge, draw 
H the tool along the length of the piece, watching if 
= the blade touches the surface evenly at all points. 

If the surface proves inaccurate, carefully reduce 
m the high places with the plane. This boy is mak- 
1 ing a table post. Notice that he has glued three 
H thin ($4-in.) pieces together to get the required 
s thickness. The joints should be cut in the “faces” 
§e of the stock. 


The marking gage is one of the hardest tools to 
learn to use. When the tool is new the spur 
should be filed to a knifelike point which projects 
through the beam about ^g-in. File the outer 
side of the spur perfectly flat, parallel to the sur¬ 
face of the head and the inner side slightly rounded 
away from the head. 

Having the gage set with the desired distance 
between the spur and the head, grasp it as shown 
in the illustration. Keeping the head firmly 
against the face edge of the stock and the farther 
lower corner of the beam in contact with the 
surface of the stock, lower by a turning movement, 
until the spur is lightly in contact with the wood. 
Push the gage from you. 


Fig. 8. Testing With Try Square 


Fig. 9. Marking Gage 

\ 3§§j 






MANUAL TRAINING 


ters at work and learn from them, i 
Now let us “get out a piece of | 
stock,” say for the garden stake in | 
Plate I, Plan I. This you will see | 
from the drawing, is X 2" X j 
10" (thickness by width by length). | 
Select a board the right thickness 1 
and with a crosscut saw, Fig. 5, cut | 


Fig. 11. Measuring 


This is the best position in which to hold 
a board to make a cut lengthwise. Short 
pieces are. however, cut most conveniently 
if fastened in a vertical position in the vise 
of the bench. Always leave a small space 
between the saw and the line. Be sure to 
cut squarely through the board. A try 
square held back down near the side of 
the saw will help you to do this. 

Notice the boy’s general position and the 
angle at which the saw is running with the 
wood. Do not crowd or bear on the saw; if 
it is properly filed, it will run straight and 
cut rapidly without pressure. 

To correct the direction of the cut twist 
the saw lightly; do not bend it. 

Fig. 12. How to Hold Try Square 




This shows the manner of holding the try 
square for laying out a line across the 
stock. As the edge of this board is still 
rough, it will be used for a piece of rough 
stock. For finishing cuts or for joints, 
one side and one edge of the lumber must 
be planed straight and square and used as 
“face side” and “ face edge” from which 
all measuring and squaring must be done. 

For fine, accurate work, as in cutting 
joints, learn to draw lines with a sharp 
knife-point instead of with the pencil. 


This boy is measuring the length of a piece with 
the steel square. He would proceed in the same man¬ 
ner if he was using a ruler. The important thing is 
to have the ruler on edge so the markings on the scale 
are close to the surface of the stock. 

Have your pencil well sharpened and be accurate. 
Sometimes for very particular work a knife-point is 
better than a pencil. 

off a piece about an inch longer than 
the finished stake. Fasten this in 
the side vise of your bench as in Fig. 
6, and plane the edge straight and 
square. When you have the edge 
right, measure off the width with the 
marking gage, Fig. 9, and with the 
rip-saw, Fig. 10, cut off the piece, 
leaving about J /$ inch between the 
saw and the gage line. Plane to the 
gage line; do not plane beyond it. 
Learn now, once for all, how to re- 






giiiiiiiniiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM^^ 



and finish with the plane. Make sev- j 
eral stakes for practice, endeavoring j 
to get them all alike. Learn to be j 
accurate. Be satisfied with nothing j 
that is wrong. j 

The only new work on the trellis | 
is the nailing, Figs. 13 and 14. In | 
nailing, observe the following rules: | 
When fastening to the side grain use | 
nails twice as long as the thickness j 
of the piece you nail through. In | 
fastening to the end grain, use nails | 
three times as long as the thickness | 
of the piece you nail | 
through. Pairs of nails | 
should be “toed togeth- j 
er.” You will readily see that they | 
will hold much better than if driven | 

Fig. 14. Drawing Nails 1 


9Vfistahes 

to 

S^void 


This boy is nailing a box together. Notice the 
H way in which he holds his hammer. For light nails 
= the hammer should be swung with the wrist; for 
^ heavier work the whole forearm is used. Try to 
= hit the nail squarely on the head with the bell face 
l| of the hammer and send it in even with the surface 
s without bending the nail or marring the wood. Use 
=s much care in placing nails so they will not come 
1 through. 


♦♦ 


♦♦ 


| spect your lines; if you cut them out, 
| you are lost and your work is wrong 
| for you will have made it too small. 
| Last of all lay off the length with 
| ruler, pencil, Fig. 11, and try square, 
I Fig- !2, so as to cut off both ends 
| square with the crosscut saw. 

This is the complete process, of 
| “getting out a piece of stock” by 
| hand. It must constantly be re- 
| peated, so you must learn it per- 
I Teach f ectly at this point. 

| Yourself Where there are to be 
I Thoroughly several pieces of the 
| same width, as in the trellis, Plate I, 
| Plan 2, get out stock all in one long 
| piece, then cut to length. 

To finish the garden stake, lay out 
| the lines .for sharpening, cut nearly 
| to them with the knife or rip-saw, 


If a nail takes the wrong direction, do not bend 
it; that will only make a bad matter worse. Nails 
which get a bad start or that are bent in driving 
should be withdrawn and new ones driven, usually 
in a new place. In drawing long nails, place a 
block, as shown, under the hammer head; this will 
prevent breaking the handle. 

In driving nails in hardwood, they bend very easi¬ 
ly. They may be driven more easily if first rubbed 
on a cake of soap. 


812 


yiiiiiiiiiiim MANUAL TRAINING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


Now for a Dog Kennel! 

The dog kennel, Plate III, Plan 6, 1 


straight. Never nail closer than 
absolutely necessary to the ends of 
stock; it is very apt to split. For the 
same reason never drive two nails 
close together in the same longitu¬ 
dinal grain of the lumber. 

In nailing the trellis, be sure it is 
square. Nail on the end of cleats 
first. Observe the arrangement of 
the nails indicated on the drawing. 
Use 2-penny com¬ 
mon nails, which 
you will find about 
the right length 
according to the 
rule in the last 
paragraph. 

The garden line 
winder, Plate I, 

Plan 3, and the 
swing seat, Plate 
II, Plan 4, pre¬ 
sent no new pro¬ 
cesses, but call for 
increasing skill 
and accuracy in 
those already 
learned. Nail the 
cleats of the swing 
seat to the top 
boards. This will 
bring the nail 
heads on the un¬ 
der side out of 
sight and where 
they cannot, by 
coming loose, tear 
clothing. 

If several of the bushel crates arc 
to be made, Plate II, Plan 5, it will 
be best to have the stock cut at the 
mill to both the width and thick¬ 
ness required, leaving only the 
length for you to cut by hand. Nail 
on the bottom slats first, being sure 
to keep the work square. In nail¬ 
ing the side slats, remember the rule 
for nailing to end grain. 


is rather a large and ambitious pro¬ 
ject but its dimensions may, of 
course, be changed if desired. Note 
that the drawing gives only the 
essential measurements. The front 
view is half-section to show rafter 
plate, floor, and sill. Only half of 
the door opening and casing is 

shown. Roof 
boards are shown 
on the right side 
only and the shin¬ 
gling is omitted 
entirely. Notice 
that the top view, 
or plan of the 
plate and sill 
frames, is smaller 
than the outside 
dimensions of the 
kennel by twice 
the thickness of 
the siding stock. 
Details of the cor¬ 
ner half-lap joint 
for these frames 
is given on a larg¬ 
er scale in the 
right lower cor¬ 
ner of the draw¬ 
ing. Cut these 
joints out with the 
two saws. 

Make the plate 
and sill frames 
first, then lay the 
floor on the latter. Drive the floor¬ 
ing firmly together with a short 
waste piece, fitting its groove over 
the tongue of the board last put in 
place. Blind nail through the ton¬ 
gue, or rather in the corner at the 
base of the tongue, into the frame 
with 6-penny common nails, slanting 
the nails so that when fully driven 
they will draw the boards firmly to- 


Fig. 15. Rafter Cutting 



This cut shows the method of laying out raf¬ 
ters, saw trestle legs and other similar cuts 
with the steel square. The picture is almost 
self-explanatory. The rise is always the ver¬ 
tical dimension and the run the horizontal. 
The cuts are indicated by the black lines 
across the stock by the blade and tongue of 
the square. 


ttlltltlllllllll|ll|il|llll!|lllllllllllll|llinillllll!llll)llllllllllll!llllllllll!llll>lllll!llllllllllllllll)lll!l|l!ll!llll<l|!IIIIIIIIIIIUIIIM 



... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. mi ..... iiimiiinimiii^ 


| gether. This is called “blind nail- 
| ing” because when the next board is 
| laid, its grooved edge, fitting over 



731 l Qctcge 




Iron Miter B ox an d a w 



'Tancjec! Firmer Chisel 



Sliding 7~~ Bevel. 



ZUxpansi on 


♦v 



•S c,re w JDr/ver 


the tongue of the preceding board, J 
covers the heads of the nails. All | 
floors are thus laid as you will see if j 
you examine them for head nails. 

Study carefully Fig. 15 with the g 
explanatory note and then cut the j 
three pairs of rafters. The rim is | 
half the outside width, the rise is | 
height from plate to peak. Nail | 
them in place on the top of the plate j 
frame and nail their tops together. | 
Next, put siding on the ends, allow- j 
ing the boards to project above end | 
rafters, afterwards cutting them off | 
“flush” (even) with the top of rafter, | 
using the crosscut saw. In putting | 
on the front, the four boards above | 
the door go on first, then those on | 
each side. Put on the door casing, j 
the threshold, and casings on the | 
corners of the kennel, if needed. | 
Last of all, put on the roof boards— | 
those at the peak first, then those at j 
the eaves. Place the others so that | 
the spaces between the boards will be | 
reasonably even. | 

Allow the shingles to project over j 
the roof boards one inch all around. | 
Lay the shingles 4 inches “to the | 
weather.” Begin with a shingle at | 
each lower corner. Between these j 
stretch a cord one inch from the | 
edge of the roof board. Nail the | 
first course so that the “butts” ex- | 
tend about two inches below the | 

Shingling COrd ‘ Use tw0 nails in | 

the Kennel each shingle and drive g 
Ro °f them so that their heads j 

will be covered by the next course. | 
Leave a space of about one-fourth | 
inch between shingles to provide for | 
swelling when wet. Nail the second | 
course with the butts even with the | 
cord and be sure to “break joints,” | 
i. e., the shingles of the last course | 
must cover the cracks of the course | 
beneath it. Strike a line 4 inches j 
above butts of second course and lay | 


814 


































♦V 


MANUAL TRAINING 

the butts of third course to this line, ditional equipment to good advan- 
Proceed ini this way until entire side tageandthe following list should be 
is shingled, then even off the peak secured if possible: 
and eaves with the crosscut saw. 

Finish at the peak 


Smooth Plan 


Iron Spoke s hares 


of the roof with a 
pair of y 2 " X 4" 
ridge boards; the 
last course of shin¬ 
gles being left at 
least 8 inches to the 
weather. 

Get a iJ/2-inch 
flat brush and a 
quart of “outside” 
house paint of any 
color you like and 
give the kennel 
three coats, aliow — HugurBits m sets 
ing about 36 hours 
for each coat to 
dry. Read and 
follow the direc¬ 
tions given on the 
can label. Brush 
lengthwise the 
boards and see how 
evenly you can 
spread the paint. 

Do not paint the 
shingles. 

Now You’re a Real 
Carpenter 

By this time you 
have enough expe¬ 
rience to plan and 
build a number of things, such as 
chicken coops, rabbit hutches, hen’s 
nests, bird houses, plant boxes— 
things whose parts may be cut ac¬ 
curately enough to be practical with 
the tools you have and which may 
be nailed together. Now let us get 
some more tools and attempt some 
projects that will require finer, more 
accurate work and different method 
of fastening. 

You can now use quite a large ad- 


J-> r a w Share 


Carriage. Mahers 
Iron C lamps 


1- 

1- 

1 - 


yy ail Set 


Turning Saw 


Compass Say 


Coping Sow 


Twist Prill for Wood 


m- 


Hose Counter Sink 

-10-inch smooth plane 

-Ts-inch nail set 

-fs-inch brad awl 

-pair wing compasses and dividers, 8- 
inch 

-compass saw or pad saw (for out¬ 
side curves) 

-12-inch turning saw (for inside 
curves) 

-coping saw (for curves on thin 
stock) 

-spoke shave (for smoothing curves) 

-10-inch half-round wood file 

-iron miter box with 24 -inch back 
saw 

-tanged firmer chisels as follows: 

1/2", 1", M", Y2", 3 / 8 ", and 


1:*: 




815 































































i'fllllllllll 


PLAN 9. 


MANUAL TRAINING 

PLAN 10. 


Illllll?* 



1 



PLAN 9. BENCH HOOK 
Stock list, soft pine or whitewood 

Inches 

Bench board, 1 piece.... 94 x 5 x 11 

Cleats, 1 piece. 94 x 2 x 10 

PLAN 10. TOOL RACK 
Stock list, basswood or whitewood 

Inches 

Back, 1 piece. 94 x 3 x 1594 

Shelf, 1 piece.94 x 134 x 1594 



PLAN 11 

Plan 9. Bench Hook. 


Plate V 

Plan 10. Tool Rack. 


Plan 11. Saw Trestle. 


PLAN 11. SAW TRESTLE 
Stock list, hard pine 

Top, truss piece and legs, 14 running feet of 2 x 4 in. dressed four sides to 194 x 394 in. 
Brace boards, 1 piece, 94 x 4 x 22 in. 




































































































MANUAL TRAINING 


-round hickory mallet with 3-inch 
face 

-carpenter’s draw shave, 10-inch 
-6-inch T-bevel 

- 4 -inch iron carriage-maker’s clamps 
-6-inch iron carriage-maker’s clamps 
-10-inch screwdriver 
-8-inch bit brace (ratchet brace 
preferred) 

-bit gage 

-set of auger bits, 13 in all, as fol¬ 
lows : ft", A", 

h\ H", y A "> yy, ir, 

and 1". 

-expansive bit for large holes 
-twist drills for wood as follows: 

l A", ^2", and sY'. 
-counter-sink (for screw heads) 

Making Seed Boxes and Bird Houses 

Now let us make the seed germ¬ 
inating box, Plate IV, Plan 7. 
Cut out the stock in the usual 
manner except that the ends of the 
pieces should be cut in the miter 
box, Figs. 16 and 17. This will 
enable you to be very accurate—a 
prime necessity in all the coming 
projects. If this box is to be 
painted, which, of course, it 
should be, smooth the sides of the 
pieces very lightly with the 
smoothing plane, Fig. 18, and 


Fig. 16 and Fig. 17. Use of Miter Box and | 

Saw 1 


sandpaper with No. 1 sandpaper, 
Fig. 19. Nail the side on with fin¬ 
ishing nails and set the heads a bit 
below the surface with the nail set. 
Fill the holes, after the first coat of 


These two pictures explain fully the use of the miter §§ 
box and saw. In Fig. 16 a square cut is being made M 
while Fig. 17 shows the method of making a “miter” M 
cut. Note the iron clamp. This is a good way to hold i§ 
large work firmly in the box for cutting. §i 

You will find this tool one of the most useful of all. = 

paint is dry, with | 

putty. | 

You will find | 
that building a | 
box that is cor- | 
rect to dimen- ff 
sions and square | 
is no “s nap .” j 
Perseverance j 
and carefulness | 
will, however, | 
win success. This | 
form of box may | 
be adapted b y* j 

varying the di- | 

mensions for al- | 

most any purpose for which an open | 
box may be needed. | 

For the little bird house in Plan 8, j 
cut out the two side boards in one j 
piece, lay out the slanting edge, and j 


817 





















iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 



2 pieces..-..— 7/g x 6 x 2254 

1 piece.-.1.1/4 x 3^4 x 5 


P/an ;3 




Plate VI 

PLAN 13. BOOK HOLDER 
Stock list, oak or chestnut 


Base, 1 piece.... 
End, 1 piece_ 


8l8 


Inches 
14 x 6x8 
■ S A x 5 x 6 






































































Sandpaper varies in coarseness from 00 to No. 2. §= 

The grade is marked on each sheet. Never sand- H 
paper until all tool work is done, for the grit of = 
the sandpaper will dull the tools. You will find |§ 
0 and y 2 the best grades for most work. Tear each || 
sheet over the sharp edge of the bench or piece j§§ 
of work through the center lengthwise and cross- n 
wise. Fold the pieces thus made once and use = 
them wrapped around a small block as shown, m 
Work lengthwise the grain, and be careful not to g 
sandpaper the work out of shape. Shape your §§ 
work with tools, smooth it with the sandpaper. M 
Notice the position of the plane lying on the back s 
of the bench. When not in use, planes should be = 
laid back in this position, thus protecting both the is 
bench top and the edge of the plane blade. |l 

Fig. 20. Boring with the Auger Bit g 

There are two ways of holding a bit and brace, g 
This is the horizontal position and permits of || 
greater pressure being used, as is sometimes neces- || 
sary in hard wood. In soft wood the spur will M 
draw the bit in without any additional help. Try || 
to bore straight through; it will require some ex- || 
perience. = 

If the bit is forced entirely through from one n 
side, it will make an ugly split on the back. To = 
avoid this, bore until the bit pricks through, then || 
turn the board around and finish the hole from the = 
other side. > H 

Twist drills for wood are used in about the same = 
manner, except that it it unnecessary to reverse the |§ 
work to prevent splitting. _ §| 

In laying out work for boring holes, locate the = 
centers. §§ 

SlIllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllH 

819 


This boy is using the smoothing plane to smooth 
the side of a board. Notice the “shearing cut,” the 
manner of holding the work between the tail vise 
and a bench peg, the position of his hands, and 
the fine curly nature of the shavings that indicates 
a thin cut. 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ MANUAL 
Fig. 18. Smooth Planing 


TRAINING iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

make the cut in the miter box, Fig. 1 
17. Wherever a piece is the hypot - 1 
enuse of a right triangle, the hori- | 
zontal base of the triangle is called | 
the run and the vertical side is the M 

Fig. 19. Sandpapering j§ 










PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


M 



Plan 14 


Plate VII 

PLAN 14. FOOTSTOOL 



C OM3//VA r/o/v 


Wd/5K SROOAf HOLDER and WECKT/E 


/' 


stock l/st 

0ass wood. 

3 ac A .... 

/ 

x d * 8 

Guides - 

2 

i * '& * *£ 

Roi /- 

/ 

5 « / * /4 

Cross Bar 

/ 

i * 'J * s 

Tcm p/ate • 

/ 




Plate VIII 

PLAN 15. COMBINATION WHISK BROOM HOLDER AND NECKTIE RACK 







































































































































imniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin MANUAL TRAINING 


rise. Instead of the opening left 
above the front board, the front may 
be all closed up and a hole bored 


Fig. 21. Setting Screws 



This boy is setting screws. Notice the position 
of the forearm, the hand, and the screwdriver. 

Never try to force screws in without having first 
made the holes for them. Either you will twist 
them off if the wood is hard, or you will split the 
wood if near the end and the wood is soft. 

Flat-head screws should have the holes counter¬ 
sunk so the heads will be even with the surface 
when they are driven home. 

The tip of a screwdriver should be kept square 
and the sides flat. Never sharpen down a large 
driver to fit a small screw. The slanting sides 
thus made will slip out of the kerf in the screw- 
head and the driver will be practically useless. 

with the expansive bit for the door. 
(See boxing with the augur bit, 
Fig. 20.) 

Making Workshop Equipment 

Plans 9, io, and II, in Plate V, 
are for workshop equipment. The 
bench hook is to hold work and pro¬ 
tect the bench top. Its construction 
introduces you to the setting of 
screws. Screws should be much 
more carefully located than are 
nails. First, with a drill as large 


as the screw (in diameter), bore a 
hole through the top piece; with the 
countersink, fit this hole to the screw 
head. This applies only to flat head 
screws; round head screws are never 
countersunk. The screw should go 
into the second place about one^- 
third its length. In hard wood, a hole 
should be made the full depth with 
a drill that is about the size of the 


Fig. 22. Mallet and Chisel 



A large Dart of work with a chisel may be done 
with the “paring” cut, holding the handle in the 
palm of the right hand and guiding the tool with 
the left. Round corners are cut with the flat side 
of the chisel down; for hollows use the bevel 
down. Take small cuts. 

For heavy work drive the chisel with a mallet; 
never use a hammer, as it spoils the chisel handle. 
This boy is making a half joint or a notch, as for 
the tool rack. His work is laid out on both sides 
of the stock. He will work to the line, first on 
one side, then on the other. Observe the bench 
hook under the work to protect the bench top. 

screw at the bottom of the threads. 
With the two pieces firmly held to¬ 
gether in vise or with clamps, drive 
the screws “home” with the screw- 


♦ ♦ 


i® 


821 












iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih^ 



PLAN 16. BOOK SHELVES 
Stock list, chestnut or whitewood 

Inches 

Shelves, 4 pieces...... 3/ A x 8 x 8 

Posts, 4 pieces---.% x 3 x 36 

Slats, 4 pieces. y 2 x 2 x 32 

Top bars, 2 pieces...-.... 3/ 4 x 2 x 10 


driver, Fig. 21 . Bore the hole after 
the pieces are fastened together. 

The legs to the saw trestle present 
the rafter problem, Fig. 15* Note 


that the run is 8J/2 inches and the j 
rise is 18 inches, and that these are | 
laid out on a line one-half inch from § 
the edge of the stock. Make the cuts I 


lllllllllllll!lllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll]lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll]|| 


822 




















































































manual training 


in the miter box. Nail the stock to¬ 
gether securely with common nails. 
Cut the brace boards across the ends 
after they are nailed in place. 


= Fig. 23. Filing 

I Notice carefully the manner of holding the file. 
E Take each stroke from you, removing the file for 
§ the back or return stroke. The surfaces of files 
H are made up of tiny teeth that cut with the for- 
If ward stroke only, drawing the file backwards dulls 
§f them. Use the flat side of the file around project- 

II ing curves like the corner of the board in the 
^ picture. For hollows, use the round side. Test 
s your work frequently with the try square. It re- 
= quires careful work to shape curves well with a file. 
H Do as little filing as possible; work should be cut 
§§ as nearly as possible to the right shape with the 
§f more accurate tools. 

The tool rack is given as a sug- 
| gestion only. Very likely you will 
| need one of very different dimen- 
| sions. Arrange the notches along the 
| back to fit the tools. Lay them out 
| carefully with square and gage, saw 
| the sides with the miter box, and 
| chisel out the hole as shown in 
| Fig. 22. 

The sleeve board in Plate VI, 
| Plan 12, should be securely fastened 
| together by two ij4-inch screws 




through both top and bottom boards. 
Cut out the ends with the compass or 
pad saw. Work the top to all the 
lines accurately with the edges 
square; then, J^-inch from the edge, 
draw a pencil line on both sides and, 
with spoke shave, file, and sand¬ 
paper, Fig. 23, try to make the edge 
a perfect half circle. Lay this board 
out from the center line; your wing 
compasses will be needed for the 
circles. 

Fig. 24. Using the Drawshave 


Notice that the drawshave is held with the flat 
side to the work. Turn it a bit at an angle so as 
to obtain a “shearing” cut. You have undoubted¬ 
ly learned long ago when whittling with your 
pocketknife that a shearing or drawing cut is the 
easiest made and gives the smoothest surface. Re¬ 
member this principle in using any edge tool. 

The drawshave is a convenient tool for quickly 
disposing of heavy cuts of waste, as in outline to 
the side lines of the tapering sleeve board in Plan 
12 . 

Making a Book Holder 

The vertical end of the book hold¬ 
er, Plate VI, Plan 13, should be fas¬ 
tened to the baseboard by three 
screws up through from the under¬ 
side. As these screws go into the 


823 












$iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiioinniiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE niniiiiiiiiiiiimniiniiiiiiiiinniiiiiimiiniinniiiinniiiiininiiniiiniiii^ 


end grain, they must be at least 
inches long and rather small in 
diameter, and very carefully set, for 
screws, like nails, do not hold well in 
end-grain. Modify the shape of the 
end boards to any outline you may 
desire. Be sure that this job is nice- 


put on a light coat of wax, spreading 
it with a bit of cloth. As soon as it 
begins to feel “rubbery,” polish with 
a clean cloth. Be sure when you are 
through to burn all cloths used for 
this work, as such cloths will, in 
time, heat and catch fire spontane- 



ly smoothed up, Fig. 23, for it is the 
first piece of furniture you have 
tried. Get a small can of wood 
stain (do not get varnish stain) and 
The Sfirt a sma ll can °f furniture 
of a Real wax. With a small brush 
A rt1s t stain the book holder all 

over except the bottom. As soon as 
the stain begins to look dull, wipe 
off all that you can with an old 
cloth. In about a half day’s time 


ously. Get a can of liquid glue and 
spread a thin, even coat on the bot¬ 
tom with a thin stick and cover it 
with a piece of felt somewhat larger 
in size, so that when the glue dries 
the felt may be trimmed even with 
the shears. It is a good plan to cover 
the bottom of any article intended 
to be used on a table top with felt 
to prevent scratching and to give a 
neat appearance. 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


824 



























































. . . . . ... . . . . 11 MANUAL TRAINING II-ii-i Ml, 1,1111, (III,II, mm mmmmmmmti 


This Is for Mother 

The details for the frame of a 
| footstool that is intended for sim- 
| pie upholstering are given in 
| Plate VII, Plan 14. The design at 
§ the bottom of the posts may be 
| varied to suit your ideas. Cut 
| whatever outline you decide to 
| use from a strip of heavy paper 

| and use it as a pattern. After all 

| the pieces are cut to size and 

| nicely smoothed, first, fasten the 

1 How to two parts of each post 

| Make a together with round- 

| Toot ^ tool head, blue screws; 

| then fasten the rails on the inside 
| of the posts with two flat-head 
| screws in each end of each rail. 
| Nail a piece of leather or other 
| suitable upholstering material on 
| the top of the frame with the 

| edges neatly folded under. Use 
| fancy upholstering nails, taking 
| pains to space them evenly. Turn 
| the stool top down, pack in as 
| much as the frame will easily hold 
| of curled hair (fine excelsior will 
| do as a substitute), fit a J^-inch 
| pine board loosely inside the 
| frame and fasten it in place with 
| a cleat fastened along the lower 
I edge of each end rail. Finish the 
| stool as explained for the book 
| holder, Plate VI, Plan 13. 

The only difficult thing in Plate 
| VIII, Plan 15, is the assembling. 
| In doing this, work from the cen- 
| ter line. Notice the stock list calls 
| for a template—this is a block to 
| fit between the guides. Fasten it 
| temporarily in place on the back, 
| then fasten the guides securely 
1 and remove the template. Use 
| flat-head screws for the back and 
1 round-head screws for the front. 
I Finish nicely with stain and wax. 
I If you have mastered all previous 



:*i 


55 


825 


















































ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin .. PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiujiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijjim 


work, the set of shelves Plate IX, 
Plan 16, will present no great diffi¬ 
culties. Note the details given on 
the left post for the location of the 
screws; these are, of course, the same 
for all four posts. Lay out these 
dimensions very carefully. The holes 
must be made in both the posts and 
in the edges of the shelves as well, 
otherwise the shelves cannot be prop¬ 
erly placed and will be split by the 
screws. Fasten the top bars to the 
posts with screws; the slats may be 
fastened with finishing nails and 
their heads covered with small fancy 
upholsterer’s nails. Finish the shelves 
with stain and wax. 

Plate X, Plan 17, is a more diffi¬ 
cult style of bookshelves. Holes, 
called mortises, are cut through the 
ends to receive projections or tenons 
on the ends of the top and bottom 
shelves. Holes are in turn cut in 
these tenons to receive the tapering 
More pins an d, when driven in 

Homes for place, hold the whole 
Book Friends p { e c e firmly together. 

The middle shelf is held up by pins, 
called dozvels, (see note under Fig. 
25), inserted in the end of the shelf, 
holes being bored in the end boards 
to receive them. Lay out the work 
very carefully on both sides of the 
stock. Cut first the tenons; then the 
mortises through them for the pins. 
Be sure these are so located that the 
pins will tighten. In cutting the 
mortises, bore out as much as possible 
with an auger bit, then finish with a 
mallet and chisel. Work partly 
from both sides of the stock or you 
will split and spoil the work. 

In the drawing of the clothes 
pole, Plate XI, Plan 18, for the sake 
of clearness some of the details have 
been omitted. The two parts of the 
base are crossed and at their center 


a “half joint” is made. This is just 
like the joint described in Plate III, 
Plan 6, for the corner of the kennel 


Fig. 25. Boring for Dowels 



This boy is doing several things to take note of. 
First, he is using the vertical position for boring 
with bit and brace. Second, he has a bit gage on 
his bit which enables him to bore several holes all 
of the same known depth, and he is preparing to 
fasten two pieces of stock together with dowels and 
glue to make a wide piece for a taboret top. 

Doweling is a round wooden rod obtained in 54 "> 
3 /&", and 54 ". Three-eighth inch is more commonly 
used. In putting table tops and similar work to¬ 
gether, short pieces about 2" long are used in the 
joints. First, make the joint using the longest plane 
you have, so that it will be perfect when the two 
edges are laid together. Then fasten together in 
the vise, as in the picture. Square lines across the 
edges, find exact center of each board on these 
lines, and bore holes to fit dowels about 54" deep¬ 
er than half the length of dowel. Insert dowels 
in one board with glue. Put glue in the other 
holes and on entire surface of joint, and clamp 
together with bar clamps. Be sure piece is per¬ 
fectly fiat and leave 24 hours to dry. 

frames. Fasten the parts of these 
shelves securely with flat-head 
screws from the underside of the 
Base. Put on the braces last and 
fasten them to the pole with finish¬ 
ing nails set and puttied, or with 
round-head screws. 


ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiniiiiniiiiimiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiM 








MANUAL 
Use of the Turning and Coping Saws 

For cutting the curves in the brac¬ 
es at the foot of the clothes pole use 
the turning saw, Fig. 26. The com¬ 
pass saw or pad saw may be used, 
but once the turning saw is learned 
you will prefer it to the others. The 
more gradual curves may be 
smoothed with the spoke shave, 
which is adjusted much like the 
block plane of which it might be 
called a distant relative Tip the 
tool forward on its nose, set it for 
a very light cut, use a shearing 
stroke and, above all, work with the 
grain. Be as careful to keep curved 

Fig. 26. How to Use the Turning Saw 


TRAINING 


♦♦ 




The thinness of this saw together with the wide 
space between the blade and the brace enable yoi 
to cut in a circle or turn just as sharp curves as 
you find it necessary in cutting any piece of wood. 

edges square with the sides of 
stock as you are to keep straight 
edges square. All sharp curves 
must be filed. Smoothing must be 
finished by wrapping sandpaper 


around the file. The foregoing di- | 
rections will apply to all curved | 
edges. | 

The coping saw is used for very | 
abrupt curves and for thin stock. It | 
may be used to make dissected pic- j 
ture puzzles. For these, use pulp | 
board l /\. inch thick (often used for | 
interior wall covering in house j 
building). Paste any suitable pic- | 
ture smoothly on this stock, cut to | 
the edges of the picture with the | 
cross-cut saw, smooth the edges with j 
the plane, and then saw into any ir- | 
regular pieces you may choose with | 
the coping saw. Hold the work on | 
one corner of a bench or table and | 
run the saw in a vertical position. | 
A small clamp will be of use in hold- | 
ing the work firmly. | 

Making Plans of Your Own 

Having reached this point in your j 
work with tools, you will be able to | 
make many simple articles that you | 
may find need for, planning them to | 
suit your own special purposes. You | 
will find this even more interesting | 
than following ready-made plans. | 
Often the best way is to work from | 
a model of the desired article, mak- | 
ing such changes in dimensions and | 
construction as will better adapt it | 
to your own peculiar use. The fol- jj 
lowing are suggestions. 

Weather vanes in interesting va- | 
riety may be made by cutting fig- | 
ures of birds or animals from thin | 
wood with .the coping saw. Fasten § 
these to a heavier bar or horizontal | 
base strip through which | 
a hole is bored to re- | 
ceive a vertical pin upon | 
which the vane is to revolve. To | 
make the vane “face the wind,” this | 
hole must be nearer the front end of j 
the vane. The pin may be a large j 
nail or “spike” driven in the top of j 


Sawing Out 

'Weather 

Vanes 


♦♦ 


8 


827 




..Hill.Illllllllll PICTURED KNOWLEDGE .. Ilg 



a post. Place a washer between the 
vane and the post to allow the vane 
to turn easily. 

Windwheels are mounted in the 
same manner as are weather vanes. 
The wheel may be made by half¬ 
jointing two soft wood pieces (joint 
used in base of clothes pole, Plate 
XI, Plan 18) at their centers, then 


Fig. 27. Looking Through the Periscope 


Here are two periscopes that these boys made for themselves. 
They are made on the same principles as the ones used by 
soldiers in a war. The picture shows how the mirrors should 
be set. Make one and you will have something new next time 
you are playing soldier or having a snow-ball battle. 


whittling or drawshaving the four 
arms all to the same slant. Small 
wheels, whose arms have rather 
sharply slanting faces, turn the more 
easily and run the faster. A good 


wheel may be made by using a round 
block of wood, perhaps Y\ inch thick 
by 2 inches or more in diameter, for 

Tien Try a 011 pi eces °f 

a Wind tin, properly bent, are 

Wheel fastened for arms. Make 

the body of the model of a piece an 
inch or more square in cross-section 
and about as long as the diameter of 
the wheel. To one end 
of the body the wheel is 
attached so as to revolve 
freely, and the other end 
is provided with a suit¬ 
able vane or “tail” of 
thin wood sufficiently 
large to compel the mod¬ 
el to “face the wind.” 
Find, by trial, the point 
on which the assembled 
model will balance and 
through the body at this 
point bore the hole to re¬ 
ceive the vertical pin on 
which the model is to 
turn. 

A level and a compass 
are necessary instru- 
ments in constructing a 
sun dial. The face of 
the sun dial must be a 
perfectly level surface, 
preferably square, on 
which a line, called the 
noon mark, has been 
drawn running exactly 
north and south. The 
finger of the dial, called 
the gnomon, is set on this 
noon mark; the upper 
edge of the gnomen must 
be parallel with the 
earth’s axis. To occupy 
this position it must make an angle 
with face of the dial that is equal, in 
number of degrees, to the local lati¬ 
tude. Having the dial with 'its 
gnomen correctly set, the hour marks 




828 




♦V 


MANUAL 

| may easily be established on any 
| sunny day. 

All out-of-door articles that are 
| intended to resist the weather should 
| be given at least three coats of “out- 
| side” paint. 

Where a Wash Boiler Is Useful 

Skis and toboggans are simple 
| yet rather difficult projects. The 
| difficulty lies in the bending of the 
| wood. To do this rightly a “form” 
| taking Skis must be made, the wood 
| being steamed until pli- 

| toboggans ^ ^ ^ damped 

| or otherwise fastened to the form 
| until perfectly dry. The steaming 
| will very likely prove a hard prob- 
| lem, but it may be done in a wash 
| boiler, over which a canvas cover 
| has been tied in such a manner as 
| to hold the wood in place. The 
| process will take several hours. It 
| will quite likely be necessary to have 
| your forms made at some local shop. 

Before undertaking skis or to- 
| boggans, you should make a careful 
| study of some good model. Select 
| the best straight-grained white ash, 
| if possible to secure it. Probably 
| the next best wood is spruce. 

Hockey sticks may be cut from 
| birch or white maple and bent in 
| like manner. Give such models as 
| these three coats of good wagon or 
| boat varnish. 

Stilts are very easily made. Be 
| sure to have strong straight wood 
| for the long pieces; their size and 
| length will depend upon the size 
| and weight of the boy who is to 
1 Stilts? use them. Bevel or round 

| That's an off the corners of these 

| Easy One pieces and make them 

| very smooth. Make the foot pieces 
| the right width at the top to receive 
| your foot; eight inches would be a 
| good length, and they should be 


How to 
9Hake a 
Periscope 

without 

“scopes' 


TRAINING 

tapered or curved away so that the | 
width at the bottom will be about an | 
inch. Attach them at whatever i 
height you like and secure them with | 
carriage bolts, two in each, passing | 
entirely through both the foot piece 1 
and the pole. A broad leather strap | 
should be so fastened (nailed) as to | 
fit the top of the foot to hold it in | 
place and to help in raising the stilt | 
in walking. | 

The boys in the picture, Fig. 27, | 
are looking at each other over the | 
end of this big table through peri- | 
scopes. These are the instruments | 
used by the submarine | 
and by the soldier in the | 
trenches to see the enemy, j 
exposing himself. The | 
these boys have made are | 
long hollow boxes about 2 ) 4 "x 4 " 1 
on the inside, constructed of 3 ^-inch | 
stock. Near each end, but on oppo- | 
site sides, small holes—about | 
IX3"—are made to look through, | 
and facing these holes small mir- | 
rors are built in at an angle of 45 | 
degrees. The black lines drawn on | 
the periscope' at the left will show | 
the position of these mirrors and the j 
white lines will explain how the | 
boy, by looking through the opening j 
in the bottom of his instrument, can | 
see the top of the one the other boy | 
is using. j 

Kite-making is a craft in itself. j 
The kite is really the most elemen- | 
tary form of the modern aeroplane. | 
The most common and perhaps the | 
best kite is the tailless kind. This | 
kite may be made any desired size, j 
When For its construction you | 

Kite Time will need two sticks, the | 

Comes spine and the boiv, both j 

of the same length. Basswood makes | 
good kite sticks, being both light | 
and flexible. The size of the stick | 
in cross-section depends, of course, | 






829 


♦V 


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upon the size of the kite or upon 
the needed strength. Use the light¬ 
est sticks possible and secure rigid¬ 
ity of construction. will 

be found a suitable dimension for 
use in medium-sized kites. Kite 
sticks should be lashed together, not 
nailed. V-shaped grooves should be 


tissue paper and cut the covering 2 
inches outside of the strings. Use 
about y inch of this extra size to 
fold and paste around the strings. 
Stretch a cord tightly from end to 
end of the bow. Between this cord 
and the bow at their centers, insert 
a brace stick about 3 inches long. 


Fig. 28. A Miniature Telegraph System 



The above telegraph system can be made up of the materials that nearly every boy 
can find at home, with the exception of the copper wire which can be secured at a 
hardware store, or from a dealer in electrical supplies. You can see from this, how to 
make the wet cell from an old dry cell and glass fruit jar. and how to arrange the 
instruments and make the connections. 


cut across the ends to receive the 
stringing, and the sticks should be 
neatly wound with small cord near 
the ends to prevent splitting. All 
lashings and windings should be 
secured with a coat of shellac. 

Suppose we have decided to build 
a tailless kite with a 3-foot spine. 
Lash the bow to the spine at the 
center of the former and about one- 
fifth the length of the latter from the 
end. Next, string around the frame 
thus made hard twisted cotton cord 
that will not stretch, using care 
to have the frame perfectly bal¬ 
anced and spaced. The covering to 
this kite must be put on loosely or 
the kite will be unsteady and likely 
to dive to destruction. Lay the 
strung form on a sheet of strong 


The bridle is a cord fastened to the 
two ends of the spine and it should 
be long enough so that, when pulled 
to one side, it will reach the end of 
the bow. It is at this point in the 
bridle that the kite line is attached. 

The square-box kite requires a 
stronger wind but has greater pull¬ 
ing qualities and is steadier than are 
its flat relatives. It is not difficult 
to make, if care and accuracy are 
used. Fourteen inches square is a 
good size to choose. The cell at each 
end should be as long as the kite is 
square, and the vent be- 
Square tween the cells somewhat 

Box Kite longer—-perhaps 17 

inches for a 14-inch kite. First get 
out four corner sticks the right 
length. Six inches from each end 


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830 





♦♦♦ 
♦ ♦ 


" MANUAL TRAINING 

| of each stick on one edge cut a 
| square notch inch deep to receive 
1 ends of the brace sticks, two of 
| which are placed diagonally in each 
| cell. These brace sticks should be 
| square notched at each end to fit the 
| notches in the corner sticks, wound 
| to prevent splitting, and made just 
long enough to bow 


♦ ♦ 


| slightly when in 
| place. To ascertain 
| the length of the 
| brace sticks, lay out 
| a 14-inch square. 

| Draw its diagonals, 

| From the length of 
| these diagonals 
| subtract the com- 
| bined width of the 
| two corner sticks, 

| then add for the 
| notches in both cor- 
| ner sticks and in 
| both ends of the 
| brace stick. 

| Make the cover- 
| ing of the cells of 
| two strips of thin, 

| tough paper, 58 in- 
| ches long by 15^ 

| inches wide. Fold 
| over inch along 
| both long edges. 

| Lay a small cord in 
| the crease and glue 
| down the fold. Lap the ends 2 in- 
| ches and glue together, making both 
| covers exactly the same length—28 
| inches when folded flat. These cell 
| covers may be made of cambric if 
| desired. Place glue on the outer 
| edge of two of the corner sticks fora 
| distance of 14 inches from each end 
| and fasten them in the opposite folds 
| of the cell covers. Exactly in the 
| center between this pair of corner 
| sticks the covers should again be 
| folded flat and the other pair of 


Fig. 29. A Home-made Doorbell 



corner sticks glued in place. Open 
the kite after the glue has dried 
and insert the brace sticks, which, if 
their length has been correctly de¬ 
termined, will make the kite rigid. 
To fly the kite in a diagonal posi¬ 
tion, use for a bridle a single line 
fastened to the two ends of one of 

the corner sticks. If 
the kite is to fly in 
a horizontal posi¬ 
tion, two adjacent 
corner sticks should 
be provided with 
bridle lines which 
are caught together 
by the kite line. 
The length of the 
bridle lines and the 
point at which to 
attach the kite line 
must be determined 
by trial, for no two 
kites can be made 
to behave exactly 
alike. 

In fact, success¬ 
ful kite-making 
and flying require a 
good supply of pa¬ 
tience and persist¬ 
ence, and the be¬ 
ginner must not be 
disheartened by 
many a defeat. 

Making Edison’s Playthings 

The making of simple electrical 
devices is very fascinating but re¬ 
quires much special material and 
often the purchase of quite expen¬ 
sive bits of apparatus. It is, in fact, 
a special field in itself, related only 
incidentally to mechanical construc¬ 
tion or ability. There are, however, 
some simple pieces easy to make 
from readily obtainable material that 
are both interesting and instructive, 


♦V 


♦♦ 









v 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦v 


i ‘Making 
| a Wet 
s Battery 


| if not exactly of practical value. 

First, you will need a source of 
| electricity—a battery. The dry cell 
| of commerce is the most convenient 
| form in which to obtain electrical 
| energy. You can readily obtain 
| these dry cells, after they have be¬ 
ll come discharged and useless, from 
| any garage or from some of your 
| automobilist friends. These dry 
| cells may easily be made into quite 
| efficient wet batteries. 

First, cut off the top of a quart 
| fruit jar. To do this, soak a piece of 
| cotton twine in alcohol or gasoline 
and wind it several 
times around the jar 
where you desire to cut 
| it off. Set fire to the string. As 
| soon as it has burned out plunge the 
| top of the jar in water. The two 
| parts of the jar will quickly part 
| company. 

Remove the pasteboard covering 
| from the dry cell and with a ten- 
| penny nail punch twenty or thirty 
| holes in the sides of the battery. 
| Distribute these holes as evenly as 
| possible. Punch them deeply enough 
| to reach the carbon center but not 
| deeply enough to break it. 

Mix a small amount of plaster of 
| paris with water in the bottom of 
| the glass jar, imbed the bottom of 
| the dry cell in the plaster and allow 
| it to harden. Fill the glass jar to 
| within one-half inch of the top of 
| the dry cell with a saturated solution 
| of salammoniac. Melted paraffin 
| may be poured over the top of this 
| solution to prevent slopping. One 
| of these batteries is shown in the 
| illustration of the telegraph, Fig. 
| 28, and of the door bell, Fig. 29. It 
| is hardly sufficient to operate these, 
| but several such batteries may be 
j connected in a series and will develop 
| enough current for many uses. They 


♦ ♦ 


will easily produce one-half volt j 
each, or about one-half the strength j 
of the dry cell when new. In con- | 
necting the series, remember that the j 
positive pole of one must be con- | 
nected with the negative pole of the j 
next (center with rim). 

Making an Electromagnet 

An electromagnet consists of an j 
iron core around which an insulated | 
wire has been regularly and evenly j 
wound. To make a simple electro- | 
magnet, wind a common spool with | 
No. 20 (B & S Gage) insulated | 
wire. In starting the winding, leave | 
enough of the first end of the wire | 
projecting to provide for connecting | 
with the battery or instrument. Fill | 
the spool with the winding, which | 
may be shellacked or covered with j 
bicycle tape. Through the spool in- | 
sert and fasten a common stove bolt; | 
when the two ends of the winding j 
wire have been connected with the | 
two poles of the battery, your spool | 
has become a magnet, the ends of | 
the bolt being its north and south, | 
or positive and negative, poles re- | 
spectively. [ 

Two of the simple magnets are | 
usually connected as shown in Fig. j 
29, when they become a horseshoe | 
magnet. The inner wire of one | 
should be connected to the outer | 
wire of the other and a bar of iron | 
or a heavy wire fastened by the j 
nuts on the bolts across the ends of | 
the two spools. The positive and | 
negative poles are then adjacent, in- | 
stead of being the opposite ends of | 
the single magnet. The horseshoe | 
magnet may be conveniently mount- | 
ed on a wooden block. A better | 
magnet may be made if, instead of j 
using the wooden spool, the stove | 
bolt is covered with waxed paper | 
and pasteboard washers are used at | 


832 


:* 





Socket Mortise Chisel 



Mortise Gage 




MANUAL TRAINING 

i S»°L tl, Sre't,i ° f Tl " wiri "* is ~mp[e,ed by conned- | 

i 'SSK.ZXuTS* ins ,he 01h ' r I 

through them. The more 
cells you have in your series, 
the greater the power of your 
| magnet. Polished bits of 
| steel like your knife blade 
may be temporarily magne- 
| tized by drawing them across 
the poles of the electro-mag¬ 
net, and interesting experi¬ 
ments may be tried with 
pins, needles, and other bits 
of steel and iron. 

Now the Telegraph 

1 here are many electrical 
devices that depend for their 
operation upon the inter¬ 
ruption or breaking of the 
electric current and the use 
of some form of the electro¬ 
magnet. Among these are 
the telegraph and the elec¬ 
tric bell. 

Fig. 28 shows a very crude 
telegraph outfit. At the right 
is the key or sending instru¬ 
ment. This one is made of a 
strip of tin, the edges of 
which were turned over and 
the whole piece bent as 
shown, and tacked to the 
wooden block. A 2-penny 
common nail is driven 
through the tin by means of 
which the key is connected 
to the positive pole of the 
battery. A second nail is 
driven in such a position 
that when the key is pressed 
it will come in contact with 
the head of the nail. This 
nail is connected to one of 
the wires of the magnet 
used in the sounder shown 
at the left in the illustration. 



Cabinet 



K II 11 Id S4r *B 1 7 


i 8 



$ 




833 






























































































































































































8 


| with the negative pole of the bat- 
| tery. A flexible bit of tin, shaped 
| and mounted as shown in the pic- 

1 How Your ture > completes the 
| Telegraph sounder, as the receiving 

| Works instrument is called. A 

| very small space is left between 
| this bit of tin and the poles of 
| the magnet. When the key is 
| pressed, the circuit 
| is completed and 
| the magnet is 
| charged and draws 
| the sounder down, 

| holding it until the 
| key is released. In 
| this way, with long 
| and short contacts, 

| the dashes and dots 
| of the telegraphic 
| code may be trans- 
| mitted, the key be- 
| ing the sending sta- 
| tion and the sound- 
| er, the receiving 
| station. 

Plenty of bat- 
| teries should be 
| provided so as to 
| take care of the re- 
| sistance, due to the 
| length of an actual 
| line between neigh- 
| boring houses and 
| to give a strong movement of the 
| sounder. An outfit similar to this 
| will furnish two boys with many of 
| the rudiments of telegraphy. 

Then Try an Electric Bell 

The illustration, Fig. 29, shows 
| a crude but working model of an 
| electric bell. The whole arrange- 
| ment is made quite clear by the pho- 
| tograph except in one particular. 
| Remember that the bell depends for 
| its operation upon a rapid automat- 
| ic making and breaking of the cir- 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

cuit; then trace the wiring from the j 
battery to the lever that operates | 
the hammer. When this lever is | 
touching the bent nail contact post j 
that shows beneath the bell, the cir- | 
cuit is made and the magnet im- | 
mediately acts by drawing the lever j 
over to its poles and away from the j 
bell. The lever is made of two | 

strips of tin, the | 


Fig. 30. The Tenon Joint 



This shows the tenon and mortise cut 
and ready to be put together. In cutting 
your material to make this joint you must 
do your marking and cutting very carefully 
in order to make a close-fitting joint. 


smaller one of | 
which the picture j 
does not show. This j 
strip remains in | 
contact with the | 
post until the ham- | 
mcr lever is almost | 
in contact with the j 
magnet, when, for | 
a brief instant, it | 
leaves the post, and | 
the circuit is broken j 
and the lever j 
springs back, deliv- | 
ering the blow to | 
the bell and again j 
closing the circuit | 
for another work- | 
ing cycle. The | 
smaller strip of tin | 
might be a fine | 
wire, for it needs | 
to be so light that | 
it will not interfere | 
with the spring action of the ham- | 
mer. The construction of the model | 
would be improved if the bell were | 
placed at the left of the hammer. | 
You will need some patience, a care- | 
fully made magnet, and effective | 
batteries if you make a successful j 
bell. | 

For use in some of the foregoing | 
work and for any “tinker jobs” you | 
will naturally want to try “on your | 
own hook,” you will find a pair of | 
side-cutting pliers, a pair of small j 
straight snips, (tin shears) and a | 


♦♦1 


834 




^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin MANUAL TRAINING iniiiiiiiiiuiniiiiiiniiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiraiiinBffliimiiiiiimiiiiiiraniiitfg 

1—cabinet scraper with burnisher for | 

sharpening same. 


“hack saw" for cutting metal, very 
convenient tools to own. 

Work with Mortise and Tenon Joint 

We will end 
this excursion 
into the land of 
“making and do¬ 
ing” with some 
p i e c es of work 
the construction 
of w h i c h re¬ 
quires the mor¬ 
tise and tenon 
joint. This joint 
is one of the 
most difficult to 
make but when 
the job of making it is done neatly 
and well you can feel well repaid for 
your labor. At this point you will 
need to get a few additional tools. 
They are as follows: 


3—socket mortise chisels, ^-in., ^-in 
H-in. 

1—mortise gage. 

1—10-in., 10-point back saw. 


If you desire to undertake panel 
work or the construction of drawers 


or any work requiring grooves, 
tongues or “rabbets” (consult your 
dictionary), you will need a univer¬ 
sal plane which is provided with in¬ 
terchangeable blades and suitable 

adjustments for 
doing all kinds 
of tongueing, 
grooving, and 
rabbeting. This 
plane will have 
with it a little 
book of direc¬ 
tions that will 
explain its use 
quite clearly. 

The mortise 
and tenon joint, 
Fig. 30, consists 
of a mortise cut 
in the side of 
one member, into 
which fits a 
tenon cut on the 
end of the other 
member of the 
joint. We will 
speak of these two as the mortise 
member and the tenon member. Both 
the mortise and the tenon are usually 


Fig. 31. Manner of Holding Mortise and Tenon Joints 




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835 

















giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE lunuiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiniiiiuuiiiniiiHiiiiiiiuiiuiniiniiiiiS 


centered on the width or the thick¬ 
ness of the stock, the width of the 
mortise or thickness of the tenon de¬ 
pending usually on the thickness of 
the tenon member. Stock less than 


54-inch thick will have j4-inch ten¬ 
ons, 54 inch to 7 /% inch will have 
54-inch tenons, and stock above 7 /% 
inch will have j4-inch tenons. This 
provides for a shoulder on both sides 
of the tenon, and a still greater 
shoulder is usually allowed at each 
end of the tenon. One-quarter inch 
is a good size for these unless the 
mortise is very close to the end of 
its member, as at the top of a table 
post, when a greater shoulder is al¬ 
lowed to prevent splitting the top 
of the post. 

Occasionally thin stock is mort¬ 
ised in full size—for example, the 
slats in the end of a table or in the 
back of a chair—but this is not done 
where the members must be de¬ 
pended upon for structural strength. 
Besides, it is not nearly so easy to 


make a perfect joint as with a 
shouldered tenon. The tenon 
should be an easy driving fit for the 
mortise, the latter being made 
slightly deeper than the length of 

the tenon. For most 
furniture making 
such as we will un¬ 
dertake, tenons 
should be made from 
i inch to i34 inches 
long. 

After joints are 
properly fitted, ap¬ 
ply a thin coat of 
thin hot glue all over 
both members and 
draw the work firm¬ 
ly together with bar 
clamps as shown in 
Fig. 31. Be sure 
that the work is 
square and correctly 
assembled and all 
joints tight. Leave 
it twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours to 
dry before removing surplus glue 
and smoothing up. Speaking of hot 

Fig. 34. Finishing the Tenon 



glue, it is obtained in “flake” form. 
This flake glue should be soaked 
twenty-four hours in cold water to 


Fig. 33. Cutting the Shoulder for the Tenon 



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836 











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1 — 11 manual training*—,—,, ,,,„ 

| soften it, then it should be cooked in 
| a double boiler (glue pot). 

Glue will not hold joints in arti- 


! cles intended for out-of-doors use. 
1 Such joints should be pinned, i.e., 
1 after they are 
[ drawn together, 
l a hole should 
| b e bored 
| through both 
\ the mortise 
| member and 
| the tenon about 
j Y inch from 
j the shoulder 
I and a tightly 
; fitting pin or 
| dowel driven 
I in, its ends 
afterward be¬ 
ing trimmed 
even with the 
surface of the 
mortise mem 
ber. It is not 
a bad plan to 
do this with 
glued joints for 
it makes them 
less liable to be 
broken by sud¬ 
den blows. 

Figs- 32, 33 . 
and 34 will 
show quite 
clearly how to 
proceed in 
making a mor¬ 
tise and tenon 
joint. Having 
determined the 
thickness of the 
tenon and the 
size of its end 
shoulders, lay out both mortise and 
tenon carefully, being sure that they 
correspond in dimensions and that 
the mortise is properly located. 





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Plate XII 

PLAN 19. TABORET 
Stock list, kiln-dried chestnut or oak. 

Inches 

4 legs .1 Vs x 13/ 4 x 20 

2 upper cross members...1 x % x 12% 

2 lower .2 x % x 12*4 

• 1 shelf. 34 x 7 x 7 

1 top ..... 3% x 10*4 x 10*4 


For the mortise, first square two | 
lines across the face of the stock cor- 1 
responding in location to the loca- 1 
tion and width of the tenon member. I 
(See Fig. 30.) In from these, meas- | 

ure for the end 1 
shoulders and | 
square two | 
more lines 1 
across the face | 
of the mortise | 
member. This j 
latter pair of | 
lines locates the | 
ends of the | 
mortise. Be- | 
tween these, | 
with the mor- | 
tise gage, lay j 
out the width | 
of the mortise | 
which must | 
correspond to | 
the thickness of j 
the tenon. In j 
setting the mor- | 
tise gage, first | 
set i t s. two | 
points apart, | 
'the thickness | 
of the tenon. | 
This is done by | 
releasing the | 
set screw on the | 
head and turn- | 
ing the thumb j 
screw on the | 
end of the gage. | 
Then set the | 
head to obtain | 
the correct dis- | 
tance from face | 
side of the stock | 
to the mortise. | 
If the mortise is to be centered, try | 
the gage from both sides of the stock, | 
varying the adjustment of the head | 
until the points register the same | 


0 




♦> 

♦♦ 


837 









































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiii!i | iiiiiiiii!!iii!!iiiiii!!iii!ii!ii!i!iiiiii!ii!i!iiii!iiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ibiiiimii*^ 


The Fern Stand 



from either side. 

Having the mortise correctly laid 
out as described above and shown 
in Fig. 32, with a bit whose diam¬ 
eter equals the width of the 
mortise, bore to the desired depth as 
shown in Fig. 33, cutting away as 
much wood as possible with the bit. 
Finish the ends of the mortise, first 
using the mortise chisel. Using the 
mallet, drive the chisel in squarely, 
bevel side toward the mortise, to the 
full depth of the bit holes and break 
it over toward the bevel. Finish the 
mortise sides with a wider paring 
chisel. Do not “undercut” so as to 
make the mortise larger at the bot¬ 
tom than at the surface of the stock. 
Such a joint cannot hold. 

For the tenon, first cut the stock 
to the length called for between the 
two mortise members plus twice the 
length desired for the tenon* (as¬ 


suming that one is to be cut on both 
ends of the stock). Measure from 
the end of stock the length of the 
tenon and square a line entirely 
around the stock, drawing the lines 
with a knife point. Remember in 
squaring for joints to work care¬ 
fully from properly marked “face 
sides.” Notice the face marks x in 
Figs. 31 and 32. Having the 
shoulder line properly established, 
with a common marking gage set to 
correspond to the size of the end 
shoulders, gage for both these 





♦♦ 


838 



































tJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM MANUAL 

| shoulders. Begin at the shoulder 
1 ^ ne * Gage from this to the end of 
| the stock, then across the end, and 
| lastly down to the shoulder line on 
1 opposite side. With the mortise 
| se t with the same distance be- 

| tween the points as was used in lay- 
| ing out the corresponding mortise 
| and with this space centered on the 
| thickness of the tenon member, gage 
| a double line from the shoulder line 
| on one edge of the stock to the end, 
I across the end and to the shoulder 
| line on the opposite edge. Fig. 32 
| shows the appearance of the tenon 
| laid out ready for cutting, and also 
| the first step in cutting the tenon. 
| Be sure to run the saw outside but 
| neatly touching the gage lines. 

| \ ou will find that you will require 

| considerable practice before being 
| able to make all four cuts perfectly. 
| In Fig. 33 the first cut to the should- 
| er line has been made and the saw is 
| entering the second. Fig. 34 shows 
| the last cut and Fig. 30, the joint 

Fig. 36. Setting the T-Bevel 


| completed ready to go together. If 
| the shoulder cuts have been rightly 
| made, the shoulders will fit squarely 


TRAINING 

Fig. 35. Using the Cabinet Scraper 


and tightly against the face of the 
mortise member. If the tenon is a 
trifle too large for the proper driv¬ 
ing fit, pare the sides across the 
grain with a sharp chisel. Use care, 
for it requires but a little cutting to 
make a loose fit and spoil what was 
a good job. 

It might be well to say at this 
point that all the projects that fol¬ 
low make use of the mortise and 
tenon joint. You should not under¬ 
take their construction until you 
have mastered the making of this 
joint and have had considerable ex¬ 
perience with all the tool work pre¬ 
viously explained. All the work 
outlined is carefully graded and it 
is assumed that before any project is 
undertaken, all the tool work up 
to that point has been done. With 


839 






8 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


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Plate XIV 

PLAN 21. FOOTSTOOL FRAME 
Stock list, kiln-dried hardwood. 

4 posts _ 

2 rails ... 

2 rails .. ^ 

8 brace members .. 54 


1 * 3 * * * 7 8 A x 
Vs X 


Inches 

m x 1154 

3 x 16 

3 x 12 

2 x 854 


8 


each new project 
all the new work 
is explained. Once 
directions are 
given, they are not 
repeated, e.g., 
curve cutting is 
explained in con¬ 
nection with the 
clothes pole, Plate 
XI, Plan 18, al¬ 
though curve cut¬ 
ting occurs in 
many of the pro¬ 
jects that follow, 
nothing further is 
said about it. 

In the plans 
many details, such 
as invisible edges 
and interior con- 
struction have 


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Plate XV 

PLAN 22. ALARM CLOCK CASE 
Stock list, any suitably seasoned lumber 

Inches 

posts ... Vs x Vs x 12 

rails . Vs x 1 x 6^4 

rails (lower).. Vs x 1% x 

upper side rails. Vs x 1 x 

lower side rails. Vs x 1 T 4 x 

face board.54 x 5 54 x 

side boards. 54 x 354 x 

top - Vs x 5 Vs x 


63 /i 

434 

434 

754 

7 54 

8 


Clock-shelf fitted in assembled frame resting 


on cleats at correct height to fit clock used. 


been omitted for j 
the sake of clear- | 
ness. The stock | 
list and your own j 
mechanical sense | 
will furnish all | 
the information j 
not conveyed in | 
the plans.- 

Plate XIII, | 
Plan 20, is a fern | 
stand much like | 
the one in one of | 
the pictures. This | 
affords a good | 
problem for the | 
first mortise and j 
tenon construe- j 
tion. Notice by the | 
stock list that the | 
rails (tenon mem- j 
bers) are ^4-inch | 


♦V 


840 




















































































MANUAL TRAINING 


thick, and plan the size of the tenons 
as suggested in the directions. First, 
get out the posts to stock size; then 
lay out and cut the mortises, four in 
each post or two in each face. The 
mortises are centered and if cut i%- 


45 “degree miter, otherwise one tenon 1 
will be much too short and will not 1 
make a strong joint. The slats in the | 
drawing are nailed on; they may be I 
mortised in the edges of the rails. If 1 
the latter is done, they must be in I 


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Plate XVI 

PLAN 23. THREE-PART FOLDING SCREEN 
Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed oak. (For each small section.) 

Inches For the middle section. 

2 stiles _ 7/s x x 63 2 stiles . 7/s x 234 x 

2 rails (upper) _ 7/ s x 234 x 18 3/16 2 rails (upper) . 7/s x 2$4 x 

1 rail (lower) . 7/s x 3^4 x 18 3/16 1 rail (lower) - 7/s x 3*4 x 


67 

20 3/16 
20 3/16 


| inch deep, will open directly into 
| each other. In joints like these, the 
I ends of the tenons should be cut to a 


place before the rails are glued into j 
the posts. Cut the tapers on the | 
posts and have all parts perfectly | 




841 












































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smoothed before gluing up. If you 
make the piece of hardwood, you 
will need to use the cabinet scraper 


to properly smooth it for finishing, 
Fig. 35. In assembling, glue it up 
in sections; first glue two opposite 
sides, being sure that posts are in 
proper position to receive the other 
rails when the first gluing is dry 
and the assembling is completed. In 
clamping, place soft wood blocks be¬ 
tween the clamps and the work, and 
be sure that the clamping does not 




. 


Plate XVII 

PLAN 24. UMBRELLA HOLDER 

Stock list, kiln-dried stock, oak preferred. 
See if you can make this stock list yourself. 


'‘roll” the post, leaving an open 
joint on one side. This may be 
avoided by shifting the position of 
the loose blocks so that the clamp 
bearing is directly in line with the 
rails. Be sure that work is clamped 
up “square,” drawn together firmly, 
and that when left to dry it is “out 


♦> 


842 



































































of wind” (long i in “wind”). The 
latter may be ascertained by looking 
across the posts of the section as you 
would place your eye on a level with 


MANUAL TRAINING 

placed on cleats that are fastened 
with screws to the lower inside sur¬ 
faces of the lower rails. Cut the 
corners of this shelf away on a quar- 




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Front.* 


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K—■- -$jr - 

Plate XVIII 

PLAN 25. HALL CLOCK 



Inches 

posts .. 194 x 1% x 71 

rails . 94 x 2 x 15 

rails (lower)..... 94 x 3 x 15 

side rails—. 94 x 2 x 11 

side rails (lower). 94 x 3 xll 

face . 3 /8 x 13 x 13 


2 

front 

slats. 

. 3 A x 

1 Vt X 15^2 

1 

front 

slat (wide). 

. H x 

4 x 15^3 

4 

side 

slats (lower)__ 

.. 94 x 

3 x 21 ^ 

2 

side 

slats (middle). 

. % X 

4 x 26*4 

2 

side 

panels.... 

■. H x 

9 x 13% 

2 

back 

slats (lower). 

. H x 

4 x 21J4 

2 

back 

slats (middle). 

. U X 

4 x 26% 


see 


if it 


were 


| a wide surface to 
| warped or twisted. 

The drawing does not show the 
| shelf. This may be of soft wood and 


ter circle to avoid fitting them to the | 
posts. Plate XIV, Plan 21, is a foot- j 
stool, the construction of which needs | 
little discussion after the fern 1 


♦♦ 


843 


♦ ♦ 
























































































































































8 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 




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Plate XIX v 

PLAN 26. SEWING TABLE. 

Stock list, seasoned birch or cherry. Inches 

posts ...,.154 x 154 x 2454 

rails . 154 x 154 x 2454 

cleats . Vs x 2/4 x 17 

spring board.„. 3 /sx 2 x 3054 

spring board block. 34 x 3 x 4 

top . s /s x 1854 x 36 

1**- — — — — — 


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quartered oak piano bench 

Plate XX 

PLAN 27. PIANO BENCH 

Stock list, kiln-dried hardwood, oak preferred. Inches 

4 posts .....1^4 x 1^4 x 19 

2 end rails (upper).-...... 3 / 4 x 4 x 13 

2 end rails (lower). 34 x 254 x 13 

2 side rails... 3/ 4 x 4 x 32 

1 brace bar... 34 x 3 x 3354 

6 end slats - 34 x 154 x 10 

1 top ...... Vs x 1654 x 36 


♦ ♦ 


844 























































































^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin MANUAL TRAINING 

= jPlate: 7-?cjcfc 


Chestnut 


3 *-/* 





Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed white oak 


Inches 
3 A x 3 x 20 


2 stiles ___ 

1 upper rail. 4 x 254 x 37 

1 middle rail. 3 A x 354 x 37 

1 lower rail—. — 3 A x 4 x 37 

2 brackets ..%x 1 54 x 754 

2 shelf rests....^ x 3 x 4 

1 plate rail._.. 3 A x 1 % x 3854 

1 shelf (top). 3 A x 254 x 40 

1 shelf (bottom)..... 3 A x 5 x 40 


Specif/cot/orrs 

A^oter/ai- ^oi/c/ mohoyorry through¬ 
out . F/n/stj— Afohoyonyjsto/rj, filler 
and 2 coots A{/ssion-/oc -the first 
cut w/tb GO sc/-papar arc/ the test 
rwhned to o c/w/f g/oss. 


WALL BOOK SHELF. 

JSca/e 3“=/' 


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Aj/f/vu/fl. lRffir/ipc> 
DEP/JPTKZKT 

J3iO 


Construction. 

Pegu/at/on pore/ Work for bo ch., "Ten¬ 
ons cenTerec /, / "long, y‘ th/ch wvU/j J:' 
Shoulders, Grooves £ deep. _S he/ves 
housed L into ends. She/ves ond ends 
to stared to batch v/!th /jj "rpe Screws. 


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Panels C^hicK 


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Plate XXII 


♦♦ 


a 


845 












































































































































































ttll 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 




Plate XXIII 

PLAN 30. MORRIS CHAIR 

Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed white oak 

Inches 

4 posts .„.2 x 2 x 23 

2 rails, back, front. 54 x 5}4 x 21 

2 rails (upper side). 54 x 1}4 x 20 

2 rails (lower side). 54 x 4 x 21 

4 side slats. 54 x 254 x 15 

2 side slats. 5 s x 3 x 15 

2 brace members. 54 x 6 x 16 


2 arms . 54 x 454 x 3254 

2 rod rests.. 154 x 1)4 x 12 

Back 


2 stiles . 54 x 254 x 27 

1 rail (upper). 54 x 254 x 15 

1 rail (lower). 54 x 3 x 15 

2 slats . 54 x 2 x 21 

1 slat . 54 x 2^4 x 21 

Cleats and slats under cushion fitted after 
frame is assembled. 


Fig. 37. Using the Block Plane 



stand has been built. Note, how¬ 
ever, that the rails are flush with 
the inside or face surfaces of the 
posts, and note the dotted lines on 
the side and end views that indi¬ 
cate how the tenons and mortises 
are arranged. Be careful in cut¬ 
ting the mortises not to split the 
posts. Glue the braces to the 
posts, fasten them near the bot¬ 
tom and screw the tops on from 
the inside of the rails. This stool 
is intended for a leather or tap¬ 
estry top. This should be nailed 
to the top of the rails; then turn 
the stool over, pack suitable filling 




♦V 


♦♦ 


846 





































































































|^ijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih MANUAL TRAINING fliiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiuijuuiiiyiiiuiiiiiiiuiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiii 

I material into the frame, over this lay hole in the beam of the marking 1 

| a board that fits tightly, force it gage in the end opposite the spur. | 

| firmly down on the packing, and Fit a lead pencil into this hole and | 


Book Shelves 



Plate XXIV 

PLAN 31. BOOK SHELVES 
Stock list, kiln-dried hardwood, oak preferred. 
4 posts ... 

3 rails (back). ... 

1 rail (back bottom). 

2 rails (upper side).... 

2 rails (lower side).. 

6 slats .-. 

4 shelves .-.—. 


Inches 
\ 3 A x 40 

34 x 3 x 28^4 
3/4 x 3*4x281/2 
3/4 x 3 x 11*4 
3/4 x 3*4 x 11*4 
3/4 X 1 X 27*4 
3/4 x 12*4 x 27*4 


| fasten in place with cleats screwed 
| to the end rails. 

Plate XV, Plan 22, involves 
| smaller joints than the preceding 
| projects. The front and side panels 
| are fastened to the inside of the 
| rails, as is also the shelf on which 
| the clock stands. To lay out the 
| chamfer along the top board, bore a 


gage as with the spur, first ascertain- | 
ing the right measurement with the | 
ruler. Cut the chamfer with the | 
block plane with a shearing cut, | 
testing the work with the T-bevel | 
set as in Fig. 36. | 

The screen frames shown in Plate | 
XVI, Plan 23, involve no new diffi- | 
culties except those which come | 


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847 






















































































$$ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

from their size. For these and for 
all the larger pieces of hardwood 
furniture to follow it will be advis¬ 
able to have the stock cut to the re¬ 
quired dimensions at some local mill. 

Make two of the smaller frames and 
one large one. After they are stained 
and finished, cover the top panels 

Macjaziine Holder 
_ „ // / // 

Scale 2 =*/-£? 




Cover the top panels with tapestry, 
plain denim or burlap of a harmo¬ 
nious color. • Then finish along the 
edges with upholsterer’s gimp and 
fancy nails, evenly spaced. Between 
the screens, use three fancy surface 
hinges of brass, placing one set on 
one side of the screen and the other 


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Plate XXV 

PLAN 32. MAGAZINE HOLDER. 


— S>£- ---> 


$ 




2 front posts . 

2 rear posts . 

2 rear rails . 

2 side rails (upper). 


4 side slats . 
3 back slats 

2 shelves _ 

3 shelves . 


oak. 

Inches 


1*4 x 50 


1*4 x 51 


4 x 18 


3 x 10*/ 


4 x 104 


2% x 37*4 


3 x37*4 


1134 x 1634 


12 x 17*4 


with tapestry or with some other 
suitable material, and remember that 
both sides will show when finished. 


set on the opposite side. 

The umbrella stand, Plate XVII, § 
Plan 24, should have a shelf placed i 





















































































8 




MANUAL TRAINING 

M in the bottom as described for the half jointed together at their cen- 1 

| fern stand, Plan 20. This shelf ters, and fitted in, after the re- | 

1 should have a round hole cut to re- mainder of the job is assembled. I 





1 


PLAN 33. WRITING TABLE. 

Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed white oak 

posts ...-.....134 X 

top end rails... 34 x 

lower end rails.... 34 x 

top back rail... 34 x 

lower back rail.. 34 x 

end slats .-. 34 x 

back slats..... 34 x 

1 back slat (wide)..... 34 x 

1 front rail... 34 x 

1 drawer partition ... 34 x 

1 shelf....-. 34 x 

1 top .-.-.. Vs x 

For each drawer. 

front .-.-.-.-.-.. V\ x 

1 back (soft wood).-.-.-. 3 /s x 

2 sides (soft wood).-.-. 54 x 

bottom (soft wood)...-.-. 54 x 


Inches 
134 x 29 
5 x 
234 X 
5 x 

234 x 


3 

3 

4 

l 3 /4 

3 /4 

11 

24 


20 

20 

3154 

3154 

1734 

155/2 

1554 

3154 

434 

3054 


x 36 


434 x 1434 

37/ 8 X 137/a 

4Vs x 1934 
1954 x 137/g 


| ceive a deep agate pie plate to catch 
| the drippings of the umbrellas. The 
| cross bars in the top are made long, 


The side slats may have a decora- | 
tive opening cut in them with the | 
coping saw, if desired. 


& 

♦V 


<1 


849 











































































giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE imimmiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiimiM^ 

| The hall clock, Plate XVIII, Plan The end view of the sewing table, j 
| 25, is not difficult, but is a long job. Plate XIX, Plan 26, shows only one j 

| Be sure to secure perfectly straight pai^ of legs; the other pair is offset | 

| stock for the four corner posts and to the right so they will not inter- | 

| do accurate work or you will have fere with each other when folded. | 

| trouble in assembling. If desired, The top for this will be made more | 


A 



PLAN 34. WRITING TABLE CABINET 
Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed white oak 


Inches ff 

1 back . 54 x 7J4 x 35 

1 top shelf.54 x 7 x 30^4 1 

4 ends .44 x 644 x 544 

4 shelves .*4 x 644 x 8*4 

Each small drawer. 

1 front .-. */$ x 2*4 x 8 

1 back . 34 x 2*4 x 754 H 

2 ends .-.44 x 2*4 x 644 

1 bottom .-.*4 x 544 x 7/j 

(Last three items soft wood.) 


the slats may be made to nail on the 
outside of the rails instead of mor¬ 
tising in, as in the plan. Any reli¬ 
able local dealer can obtain works 
for this clock for from $10 up, and 
will tell you how to put them in. 
Make the face of vour clock so that 

j 

it can be removed from the front to 
provide for inspection of the works 
from time to time. 


attractive if glued up in strips of 
light and dark wood. Be sure your 
lumber is well seasoned, otherwise it 
will not stay glued. Kiln-dried 
lumber is the best. Have the long 
joints prepared at the mill. Follow 
directions for setting dowels, Fig. 
25, and make up the top longer and 
wider than finished dimensions, cut¬ 
ting to size after gluing is dry. To 


•Jimmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.mm...mu.......... 


850 
































































Jv 


MANUAL TRAINING 


•v 



£ l.t 


Plate XXVIII 

PLAN 35. LIBRARY TABLE 



smooth the ends of the top you will 
need to use the block plane, Fig. 37- 
Perfectly made and pinned joints 
are required between posts and rails. 
Fasten rails to top with table hinges. 
The legs are secured open by the 
spring board, which has two holes 


which must be very carefully placed j 
near each end to receive pins in the | 
under side of the rails. j 

Plate XX, Plan 27 , is for a piano | 
bench. This has all the essentials | 
of table construction and makes a j 
good project to do before under- | 






851 



























































































































































llllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH 


iiiiuiimiiiiUDiiiiiiiuiuuimuiuiuijiuuuuiiJiJiimiuiiiuimiiiiiiiiB PICTURED 

taking a table. The lower shelf may 
'be mortised through the end rails 
or fitted between and fastened by 
first boring a ^4-inch hole from un¬ 
derneath, i-inch from the end and 
not more than half-way through the 
stock. From the inside of this hole, 
bore with a 7/16-inch drill out 


KNOWLEDGE 

fastened to the top of the side rail. 
Cleats are nailed to the inside of the 
rails about one-half inch from the 
lower edge and a thin wood or pulp 
board fastened to the underside of 
these cleats. A storage for music is 
thus provided. 

The plate rack, Plate XXI, Plan 


•« 


V)/ r/tinq Desk 

Scq/e 2."- / * 



PLAN 39. WRITING DESK 
Stock list, kiln-dried quarter-sawed white oak 


_ , Inches 

2 front posts. 14 x iy 4 x 29 

2 rear posts . Vs x 6 x 37 

2 upper side rails. 3 A x 5 

2 lower side rails__ % x 2 

1 back . % x 13 

1 back rail. 3/ 4 x 2 

1 shelf (lower). z Ax 7 


1 front 


x 1334 
x \Z*A 
x 28 
x 28 
x 2734 


rail. 3/ 4X 14 x 284 


} top,, .-.— 3 A X 19*4 X 31 

1 shelf (upper) . s/ 8 x 5% x 27Vs 

2 pigeonhole ends. s/ 8 x 54 x 274 

2 pigeonhole shelves. s/ 8 x 54 x 7 

Stock for drawers to be worked out from 
study of^drawer specifications for writing table 
and cabinet, Plans 33 and 34 . 




through the end of the stock for a 
screw. Two screws will be needed 
in each end. Table tops are often 
fastened down to the frame in this 
manner. Look over shop-made fur¬ 
niture for hints. The top of this 
bench is put on with table hinges, 


28, is a plain mortise and tenon job 
that at this point will need no com¬ 
ment, unless it be the general rule 
that in fastening with screws, e.g. 
the shelves, place them, as far as 
possible so their heads will be hid¬ 
den from view when the piece of 


852 


:*$ 


..... .. 



























































^iiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw MANUAL TRAINING iiiiiiiiiiiiillllliilllililililililillliiliiiilliiiliiilliiiiiiiiiiiiiii!^ 


furniture is in its normal position. 
Such a piece as this should be 
screwed firmly to the wall with two 
round-head screws located above 
the center of gravity. 

The wall book shelf, Plate XXII, 
Plan 29, may be made without the 
panels, when it is much the same 
problem as Plate XXI, Plan 28. If 
made in this manner and the ends 
fastened to the shelves with screws 
or dowels, it presents no new problem. 
It may, however, be made the first 
piece of panel work as indicated in 
the drawing. Make the mortises and 
tenons first. Then with the universal 
plane set up for cutting a %-inch 
groove, make the grooves, centered 
on thickness and J^-inch deep, on 
lower edge of top rail, both edges of 
middle rail, upper edge of lower rail, 
and inner edges of vertical end 
pieces (stiles). Make the panel a 
bit less in width than the space plus 
the grooves to allow for expansion. 
Glue ends of panels, but not the 
edges; if edges are fastened and the 
panel shrinks, it will split. Glue in 
a piece at top and bottom of groove 
in stiles. 

The best construction would call 
for a housed joint where the shelves 
join the ends, i.e., the end of the 
shelf is “let in” to the end board its 
full size to the depth of %-inch. 
This is really only a very accurate 
mortising job, but to do it you will 
need a bit without a point so the 
boring can be done without defac¬ 
ing the outside of the end boards. 
Such bits are called Forstner bits, 
and 34-inch, j^-inch and ^-inch 
are the most useful sizes. 

The Morris chair, Plate XXIII, 
Plan 30, presents no new processes. 
Its dimensions may be changed to 
suit, those in the drawing being 
somewhat smaller than standard. 


Hinge the back to the back rail and 
have your local blacksmith make a 
rod of -inch round iron to sup¬ 
port the back. Loose cushions are 
usually used in Morris chairs and 
slats should be provided, resting on 
cleats near the bottom of the front 
and rear rails, on which to place the 
seat cushion. 

There is really no new work in 
the bookshelves or in the magazine 
holder, Plate XXIV, Plan 31, and 
Plate XXV, Plan 32, but great ac¬ 
curacy must be exercised both in 
measurements and in working. Cut 
the notches in the posts all to the 
same depth and be sure the ends of 
the shelves are perfectly square and 
all to the exact length required. 
End sections are glued up first, and 
all shelves and the members of the 
back sections must go in together. 
Slats may be nailed with finishing 
nails to the shelves. 

Notice in Plates XXVII and 
XXVIII, Plans 33, 34, and 35, that 
the front rail under the drawers lies 
horizontally so that the mortises in 
the posts will be crosswise instead of 
lengthwise. Study Plan 34 for the 
arrangement of drawer guides. Plan 
33 will show the best method of 
drawer construction. The ends of 
the front board have a rabbet into 
which the end of the side board is 
glued and nailed. A groove, run 
34-inch from the bottom of front 
and side boards, receives the bottom 
which is glued into the front board 
only. The back board fits in grooves 
near the back end of the side 
boards and rests on top of the bot¬ 
tom board. The bottom, if made of 
wood, will, of course, need to be 
glued up out of several pieces. It 
would be well to make it of j4-inch 
stock and thin the front and ends to 
fit the grooves. It is glued at the 


Siiuiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii™^^ 


353 


?*:il!ll!l!!!l)llllll!llllllllllllinill!llllllll]|llll!lllllllllllllllll!llllll!IIIIIIllllllllllllllll!llllllllll!IIIM .. 


\ 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiliiliiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


front only and placed under the 
back board to allow for the varia¬ 
tion in size that is inevitable with 
such wide stock. Where dimensions 
are not given, make the drawers to 
fit the space provided for them. 

Fasten in bottom shelves and fas¬ 
ten down table tops as explained for 
the end of the brace bar on the 
piano bench, Plate XX, Plan 27. 

Table tops should be squared to 
size, the underside planed to a flat 
surface, and then fastened to the 
frame. Plane, scrape and sand¬ 
paper the top after it is fastened 
down. In planing such wide and 
cross-grained surfaces, use a sharp 
smooth plane and go crosswise with 
a shearing cut. Oil the ends of the 
top to prevent the joints from open¬ 
ing and finish both sides of the top 
to prevent shrinking and swelling 
by shutting the air from the wood. 
Do not glue up a table top very long 
before the frame is ready to receive 
it, and finish it as soon as possible 
after you have it smoothed. 

Plate XXVI, Plan 34, shows, in 
the detail for the small drawer, a 
dovetail joint. This is not essential 
but should you care to do it cut the 
tails first. You will find the T-bevel 
the tool to lay them out with. Bore 
a hole between them and use the 


back saw and chisel to finish the cut¬ 
ting. Mark the mortises in the ends 
of the drawer fronts from the tails, 
bore them with the Forstner bits. 
To get into the sharp corners you 
will need a chisel ground to “skew” 
point. A good dovetail joint is con¬ 
sidered the test of an excellent 
workman. 

Probably the best manner of fas¬ 
tening the cabinet together is by 
housed joints where the shelves go 
into the ends and the ends go into 
the top shelf, the back to be fas¬ 
tened on with screws and the whole 
screwed to the table from the under 
side of the top. 

Now, my young friend, I bid you 
study carefully and build honestly. 
My mother often said to me when I 
was a lad, “First be sure you’re right, 
son, then go ahead.” I commend 
her advice to you. It is good in 
building these wooden things we 
have been talking about; it is even 
better in building that glorious 
thing called manhood. And if these 
pages of directions have led you to 
build well and joyously and to re¬ 
joice in the rewards of common toil, 
you will have built not only good 
and useful pieces of furniture but a 
substantial and beautiful part of that 
structure that men call character. 



v* 








A NTS are such little folks and 
have such interesting ways 
of building homes that we must 
make for them a special apart¬ 
ment to keep them alive and com¬ 
fortable. To make an ant apart- 

The Ant ment, take a piece 
Castle and of plank I *4 inches 
its Moat thick, 20 inches long 

and about 16 inches wide, and 
near the edge dig a furrow 


inch deep. The plank should be 
painted, furrow and all, to keep 
it from checking. This plank 
is the yard around the apart¬ 
ment and the furrow is to be filled 
with water, making a moat to keep 
the ants in their little castle. For 
the apartment itself we must have 
a sheet of tin 11 inches square, 
made into a tray by turning up 
the edges all around, about 



t* \ 
♦ 









S' 















































































PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


Y% inch. Place this tray in the mid¬ 
dle of the plank and place on the 
bottom of the tray a pane of window 
glass io inches square to make the 
floor of the apartment. Place 
around the edges a few burnt 
matches to hold the ceiling up from 
the floor, and cover the glass with 
a thin layer of fine soil, and at one 
corner place a triangular piece of 
blotting paper about 4 inches long. 
Place over this, resting on the 
matches, another sheet of glass, 10 
inches square, for the ceiling. But 
this ceiling must have one corner cut 
off so as to make a triangular door 
for the ants to enter. This door 
How to should be placed so that 

Watch one corner of the blot- 

the Ants ting paper may be 

reached through it. After the ceil¬ 
ing is put on we must make the roof, 
which consists of two pieces of thin 
boards, each 5 by 10 inches in size, 
and each with a knob or a screw- 
eye at its center to lift it by. For 
we have to take off part of the roof 
each time we wish to see what the 
ants are doing. 

In order to get some ants to live 
in the apartment, we must take a 2- 
quart mason jar and a trowel and go 
to some field and turn over stones 
until we find under one a colony of 
ants with plenty of young ones. 
These look like little white grubs or 
wheat kernels. With the trowel, lift 
the soil, ants, youngsters and all and 
carefully place them in the jar and 
screw the cover on, thus being sure 
that our captives do not escape until 
we get them home and empty the 


contents of the jar on the roof of 
the nest. The ants will soon find 

• 

their way into the little apartment, 

A Moving aIld Wil1 Carr y tHeir 
Day for the babies in there and hide 

^ nts them in the dark. This 

will happen in two or three hours, 

and then the dirt may be removed 

from the roof covers and the ants 

will be settled in their apartment. 

We must remember that light dis¬ 
turbs the ants very much, so we must 
lift off only one cover at a time when 
observing; and we must not keep this 
off very long. Fresh food must be 
put on the plank each day, such as 
bits of hard boiled eggs, finely 
minced, lean, raw meat, any dead in¬ 
sect, or spider, bits of bread, broken 
berries and fruit, seeds of plants and 
Helping grasses. The corner of 

the Ants the blotting paper 

Keef House should be wet with wa¬ 
ter from a pipette every second day, 
for thus the nest is kept properly 
moist. Idle moat must constantly be 
filled with water, or the ants will 
escape. In such a nest the ants may 
be seen making their toilets, feeding 
and caring for their young, talking 
by patting each other with their 
antennae and many other interesting 
things. They will always choose 
some corner into which they will 
dump the waste matter of the nest. 

While it is desirable to have a 
queen mother in such a nest, yet a 
queen is so hard to find that we must 
usually be content with ant workers 
and their young. The ants will be 
very contented while they bring up 
their young. 


Moss Gardens for Toads and Tree Frogs 


Take an aquarium jar and place 
about three inches of gravel on the 
bottom, building up one side much 
higher than the other. Cover the 


higher side with moss, if you have 
it, or plant some ferns in it, or leave 
it bare. Pour in enough water, care¬ 
fully, so that it will cover the lower 






V# 


|:IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHI .. PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM RiiiimiiiimiiimiiiiiniiiiimiiflmmiimmiimiiiiiiiiiS8 

I A Cousin of the Toad I 



Bull-Frogs make known their presence in every pond and quiet lake by their deep-voiced bass 
chorus, but how many of us ever saw one of these interesting animals at close range? This you 
can do if you keep them for pets. 


part of the gravel, but will allow 
the higher part with the moss to 
project above, so as to make land 
for the toad to live on. There should 
be as much land as wa- 
Through His ter in this little toad 
garden. This is neces¬ 
sary, for the only way a toad can 
drink is by getting into the water 
and letting it soak into its skin. 
There should be a cover of wire net¬ 
ting, fitting firmly upon the jar, so 
Mr. Toad cannot hop out. The moss 
garden must never be placed in the 
direct sunlight; and if it becomes 
smelly, the gravel should be washed 
or renewed and the garden made 
over. 

The toad should be fed twice a 
week. Flies caught in a wire trap 


and held in water for a moment may 
be emptied into the garden, so that 
the toad can take his breakfast food 
in his own way, which is a very in¬ 
teresting way. Mr. Toad’s fork is 
his tongue, and instead of having 
tines, it is sticky, like tangle-foot fly 
paper. It is fastened to the front of 
Needs bis mouth, so that he can 

Only dart it out and stick it 

Two Meals f as t to a fly and pull it 

back “quicker than a wink.” The 
toad also likes meal worms and earth 
worms, and with a little patience he 
can be taught to take bits of liver 
from the point of the forceps. 

You can see many interesting 
things about your toad in a moss 
garden. Its warty back looks just 
like the soil in the garden where the 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


857 







PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


*,♦ 

* 



The “froggie who under a toadstool sat”, conventionalized, makes a fine black-board border 
for the school room. This is how it is used by New York State teachers in connection with the 
State Department of Visual Instruction. 


toad loves to hide. Its eyes are 
beautiful, and it has tiny nostrils 
and a circular, flat ear just behind 
each eye. Its throat beats to help it 

His Threat breathe. Its strong jump- 

'Beats to He1£ ing hind legs have feet 

Him Breathe j th fiye toes wh j ch are 

’ 

partially webbed. Its short arms 
have hands with four fingers. It is 
fun to see the toad bury itself in the 
ground or swim in the water; and, 
most of all, it is fun to see it swell 
up with enjoyment when you scratch 
its back with a straw. 

How to Care for Tree-Frogs 

The moss garden is just the place 
in which to keep a dear little tree- 
frog. Only we should add to it a 
bit of a branch covered with bark 
for the tree-frog to perch upon. 


This froglet is the most fascinating 
of all frogs to keep as a pet and to 
watch. It is a tiny creature, with 
beautiful eyes and knowing ways. 
It has a little round disc on each 
Mr. T. Frog t° e > which is covered 
and His with a sticky substance 

Funny Feet Pgjpg ft hold on 

to the bark of trees, where it natural¬ 
ly lives. It is a wonderful musician ; 
its little throat will swell out until 
it looks as large as a marble, when 
it is making its sweet but stirring 
song. 

The tree-frog, like the toad, finds 
a cage full of half drowned flies most 
diverting hunting. It also is partial 
to meal worms. Bits of liver at the 
tip of forceps, if held enticingly in 
front of a tree-froggie’s nose, sud¬ 
denly disappear. 


How to Keep a Squirrel “Squirrelsome” 


Squirrels are such active creatures 
| that it is wicked to keep one cooped 
| up in a small cage, even though 
| there is a wheel in which it can play. 
| If possible squirrels should be given 
| their freedom out of doors; they 
[ will become very tame by regular 
| feeding, and thus make charming 
| pets. If this is not possible, a big 
| cage, at least six feet square is neces- 
| sary; it should be made of chicken 
| wire inch mesh. Near the top, 
| at one side, should be fastened a nest 
| box about one foot square with an 
| opening 3 inches wide near the top. 
| Dry leaves and grasses are to be 


used to make a bed in this box. | 
Make a Home Branches should be | 
Not a placed in the cage so as 1 

Treadmill f • ,1 i = 

to give the squirrel a | 
chance to leap and play. A wheel j 
may also be added for the little | 
captive’s amusement. It may be | 
coaxed into the wheel by placing in | 
there a few nuts. A squirrel may 1 
also be kept comfortably in a room, | 
but care must be taken lest it gnaw | 
its way out. A nest box is as neces- | 
sary in a room as in a cage. 

Squirrels should be fed plenty of 1 
hard shelled nuts, like walnuts, hick- j 
ory nuts and butternuts, so that their 1 


«« 


♦v 


858 




^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


Squirrels are such active creatures that it is wicked to keep 
one cooped up in a small cage. If possible, they should be given 
their freedom out of doors; they will become very tame by regular 
feeding and thus make charming pets. 


teeth may be kept from growing too 

rapidly. 1 hey are fond of chest- 

The Food nuts, acorns and will 

Squirrels even eat peanuts. They 

Like Best are a j so f onc J 0 £ b err i es> 

lettuce, corn, bread and milk, bread 
crusts, and many kinds of breakfast 


foods. Lumps of hard plaster must 
be kept where the squirrels can have 
access to them; and every day there 
must be fresh water supplied in a 
dish which it is impossible to tip 
over. A baby squirrel may be fed 
luke-warm milk from a spoon. 


How to Make Bunny Comfortable 


Bunny’s house must be made so 
| that it will keep him warm and dry, 
| and at the same time, just like little 
| boys and girls, he must have plenty 
| of fresh air. Bunny’s house is called 
| a hutch, and in size it should be at 
| least a yard long, 18 inches wide and 
| 18 inches high. The roof must not 
| let in a drop of rain or of melting 
| snow. One end should be very tight, 
| so that there can be no drafts; in the 
| other end, there should be a door. 
| At the end farthest from the door, a 
| little bed chamber should be parti- 
i d -77- tioned off. The floor of 

= Building the 

| Hutch for the hutch should not 
| the Rabbits rest upon the ground, 

| and it should be carpeted with a lay- 
I er of sawdust and above this a layer 


of clean straw or hay. The sawdust | 
in the outside room will need to be | 
replaced daily with a new supply. | 
Bunny is very careful of his bed- | 
room, so the bedding there need not | 
be changed so often. The hutch | 
should be placed in a yard fenced | 
with chicken wire, which must be set j 
into the ground to the depth of a | 
foot; otherwise Bunny will burrow | 
out. If the yard is small it may be | 
roofed over; and, if several bunnies | 
are kept together in such a yard, | 
each should have a little house of its | 
own. A yard to run about in is al- | 
most necessary for Bunny’s health, | 
since he needs to take exercise. 

There are so many things which | 
Bunny likes to eat that we can al- | 


The Saucy Little Gray Squirrel 


859 




t^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiii!ii!iiiiiiiiiiii!ii!ii!!iii!iiiiiiiiiii!i!iiii!iiiiiiiiiiiini!ii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimi 111 *^ 


Pet Bunny and a Baby Chick 



This nice, white bunny had his picture taken. I wonder if you could guess from the picture what 
day it was when he had it taken. Bunnies are such dear pets, they are so soft and warm and have 
such queer, long ears and such squirmy, pink noses. 


ways set his table to suit his taste. 
He likes cabbage leaves, sliced beets, 

what Bunny parsnips and carrots. If 
Likes for he can have all of the 

His Meals sliced carrots he can eat 

he will always be well. He likes 
fresh grass, dandelion leaves, let¬ 
tuce and parsley. He also needs 
dry food, and is fond of good clover 
hay; this should be used for his 
bedding so that he can eat up his 
bedspread at his leisure. He also 
likes oats, bran and meal, which 
should be dampened enough to be 
crumbly. 

Bunny’s table should be a pan 
with its edges turned in so that he 
cannot pull his food out. His pan 
should be washed and scalded two 
or three times a week. He must 
also have fresh water every day in 
a drinking pan fastened to the side 
of his hutch, so that he can drink 
without spilling the water. The 
drinking pan must be cleaned often. 

If Bunny is troubled with di¬ 


arrhea, give him dry food instead 
of green food. If he takes cold 
and looks as if he needed to use a 
When Bunny handkerchief, his nose 
is Under the should be bathed in 
Weather warm water once or 

twice a day so that the mucus will 
not dry and stop his breath, and 
he should be given a warm bath and 
some hot milk. If we need to move 
Bunny we must never lift him by 
the ears as if they were his handles. 
We may take him by the ears with 
one hand but always bear his weight 
from below with the other hand. 

Mama Bunny should be given a 
home of her own apart from the 
others, when a litter is expected 
She will make a comfortable bed for 
her bunnies out of hay, and will line 

What to Ho it: with soft hair which 
When the shewillpull f romherown 
Babies Come breast. After the baby 

bunnies come, she should not be dis¬ 
turbed for a few days or she will 
lose her mind and destroy them. 


S 



860 








♦> 

♦♦ 


PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM 




| When she leaves her nest to go out 
| for food, we can take a peep at her 
| little family. Baby Bunny is born 
| blind, and scantily dressed in silky 
| fur. After nine days its eyes open 
| and by the time it is a month old it 
j will hop about “lippety, lippety,” 
| and then may be fed bread and 
| milk, which Mama Bunny will also 


enjoy. Later, fine bran mixed with | 
carrots, or dampened oatmeal will | 
be relished by the little bunnies. | 
They should be taken away from | 
their mother when they are two | 
months old, and all of the little girl j 
bunnies should be put in one pen | 
and the little boy bunnies in an- | 


other pen, quite separate. | 

Gold Fish and the Aquarium 

Go to the nearest pond or quiet placed in the direct sunlight, but as | 
| stream where water plants grow, and near to a north window as possible, j 
| in a pail of water bring home sev- A dip tube should be used to remove | 


| eral of these plants 
| which live their whole 
| lives below the water 
1 surface. Place in the 
| bottom of the glass 
| aquarium a layer of 
| sand and gravel an 
| inch or two deep, and 
| then carefully set in 
| this sand the water 
| plants and anchor 
| their roots by placing 
| little stones on them. 
| After this is done, add 
| water by pouring it 
| from a pitcher very 
| gently down one side 
| of the aquarium so as 
| not to uproot or dis- 
| turb the water garden. 
| In such an aquarium 
| the water is kept pure 
| by the growth of the 
| plants, so it will not 
| need to be changed 
| more than once a 
| year, when the aqua- 
1 rium will need a thor- 
| ough cleaning. Fish 
| or other water crea- 
| tures may be kept 
| comfortably in this 
| aquarium, which 
1 should never be 


A Bluebird House 


waste material from | 
the bottom. j 

Gold fish may be | 
kept very comfortably | 
in such an aquarium. | 
They may also be kept | 
in an aquarium where j 
there are no growing | 
plants. If a fish globe | 
is used, it should | 
never be more than | 
half full of water, so | 
that there will be as j 
much water as pos- | 
sible in touch with j 
the air. If the globe | 
is filled to the brim, | 
the poor fish will suf- | 
focate. The gold fish | 
aquarium should nev- | 
er be placed in the di- | 
rect sunlight; the wa- | 
ter in it should be | 
changed at least twice | 
a week and great care | 
must be taken to have | 
the fresh water of the | 
same temperature as | 
that which is emptied | 
out. If rice water is 1 

This little boy and his sister had a . . , - , , 

garden, but the worms and bugs ate led tO tlie nSfl, trie Wa- = 

the young plants in it most greedily. , i _i __j 1 

So they decided to build a bird house ter must be changed = 

as an invitation to the bluebirds to fi'mpc n wppP = 

come and eat up the bugs. Here you inree Lillies d. \\ LtK. = 

corner*?} fhe^garden ^ * When changing the j 



S 


86i 



^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiN PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwiiiw 




water, take the fish out carefully by 
hand or with a little dip net, and 
place them in a basin of fresh water 
while the 


rats cannot climb up. If the pigeons 
are kept in a house such as is used 
for poultry, it should have an inter- 

lining of 


globe is be¬ 
ing cleaned. 

The most 
common 
cause of 
death of 
gold fish is 
over - feed- 
in g, for 
they require 
a very small 
amount o f 
food. Two 
kinds of 
food should 


Feeding “Old Bobbie 


“Old Bobbie” was a robin that came to this same window sill 
four years in succession. Two small friends of his are offering 
him breakfast, as you see. 


be given, 

ground fish or other animal food, and 
rice water, oatmeal, or flaked vermi¬ 
celli. Bread or anything with yeast in 
it should never be given. Gold fish 
should be fed every day at a regular 
hour and only a small pinch of food 
for each fish should be given. Pond 
snails, newts and turtles should 
never be An Interesting Pet 

kept in an 
a q'uari u m 
with g o 1 d 
fish. 

How to Raise 

Pigeons 

These 
lovable 
birds must 
be kept in 
a house 
which is rat 
and mice 
proof. If 
they are 
kept in a 


wire net¬ 
ting. The 
nest boxes 
should b e 
about a 
foot square 
with a 
t hreshold 
outside o f 
each for 
one parent 
to perch 
upon while 
the other is 
sitting o n 
the eggs. 

The whole pigeon house should be 
occasionally whitewashed, outside 
and in, with lime. 

Pigeons should be fed twice a day. 
They are fond of red wheat, Canada 
peas, buckwheat, hulled oats, kaffir 
corn and millet; as a treat once in 
a while, the seed of rape or hemp 

m a v 


given. 
1 e y, 
and 


b e 
Bar- 
r v e 

j 

large 


This bird looks as though he were angry, but he is not. He 
is a ruffled grouse—a kind of partridge—and his feathers just 
grow this way. The father of the little girl in the picture raised 
him from the egg. He is quite tame. 


kern elled 
corn should 
never be 
offered. To 
keep the 
p i geons 
well, they 
should 
have green 
food, such 
a s lettuce, 
onion tops, 
etc. They 


dove cote, a guard of zinc should be also need salt; a large lump of rock 
bent down around the base of the salt, moistened, may be placed where 
standard which supports it, so the they can get at it any time or salt 


Si 


♦♦ 


862 







PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM 


3 


| codfish may be tacked to the wall 
| where they can nibble it. Gravel is 
| quite necessary to the pigeons' diges- 
| tion, but if they are free to fly they 
| will get it themselves. If they are 
| confined in a yard of chicken wire, 
| they should be given crushed oyster 
| shells mixed with sand and charcoal. 
| They must also be able to get a drink 
| of fresh water whenever they desire. 
| If they cannot be given access to 
| running water, fresh water should 
| be placed twice a day in shallow 
| pans in their yard. A pigeon does 
| not act when drinking like any other 

How to Care 

Andy is a Hartz Mountain singer 
| with red bracelets on his legs as a 
| tag for his pedigree. He has a 
| wonderful song which he learned 
| from a flute and when he sings, he 
| lifts up his head so as to give his 
| lungs room and his notes bubble out 
| of his throat. 

As soon as the cover is taken off 
| his cage in the morning, he stretches, 
| then hops down to get some break- 
| fast from his seed dish. After that 
| What Andy he begins calling for his 
| Does All Day bath. He is very fond 
| of his bath tub. For, like all im- 
| ported birds, he will use only an 
| outside bath, which is a zinc bot- 
1 tomed box with three sides and slop- 
| ing top of glass. The open side is 
| hooked on to cover the open door of 
| his cage, thus giving him a little 
| glass “bay-window” for a bathroom ; 

| and although he may splash around 
| in the water a great deal he does not 
| wet his perches or the bottom of his 
| cage. After his bath, Andy is let out 
| of his cage for an hour or two in a 
| room with screened windows; he 
| loves to fly around and explore ev- 
| erything he can reach. If his mas- 
! ter or mistress enters the room he at 


bird. Did you ever notice this dif¬ 
ference? 

Seventeen days after mother pig¬ 
eon lays her eggs they hatch into 
very awkward looking little squabs, 
rr But the parents think 

now the 1 

Mother Feeds they are the most beauti- 
Her Bahes f u l babies j n the world 

and feed them with a food which is 
produced in their own stomachs. 
After five days the parents give 
them grain which they first soften in 
their stomachs. A squab is fed on 
pre-digested food in this way until 
it is five weeks old. 

for a Canary 

once begins to beg for hemp seeds 
which are kept in a basket on the 
bureau; he loves hemp seeds so much 
that he will come and take them 
from the fingers, and can be coaxed 
to do almost anything by giving 
them to him as reward. However, 
he is allowed only a few hemp seeds 
a day. 

When it is time for him to return 
to his cage, fresh water is put in his 
drinking cup and fresh seeds in the 
seed dishes. He watches attentively 
while this is being done and at once 
goes into his cage to feast. Fresh 
lettuce leaves are placed in a glass 
What Andy of water which in turn 
Has to Eat i s placed in the bathtub 
which has been emptied and again 
hung over the door of the cage. 
This is a way to keep the lettuce 
fresh for hours. Fresh leaves of 
lettuce, chickweed, cabbage or slices 
of apple are quite necessary to the 
health of a canary. Andy’s seeds 
are a mixture for “roller canaries, 
which means that plenty of the seed 
of summer rape, which is brown and 
not black like mustard seed, is mixed 
with canary seed and millet. If 
Andy were an English or American 


j y = 




863 


&i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiii* 


Queer Companions 



Here are a rose-breasted grosbeak and a young toad, both pets of the little girl who is holding 
them. 


* 


| canary, he would be 
| given less of rape seed. 
| He is given a teaspoon- 
| ful of seed each day and 
| all his dishes are emptied 
| and cleaned often. Oc- 
| casionally he is given a 
| bit of dry cracker for a 
| relish; and he always 
| has sand on the bottom 
| of his cage and a cuttle- 
| fish bone is wedged into 
| the wires at the top, so 
| that he may eat of either 
| and keep his digestion in 
| good order. 

Andy’s perches are not 
| all of the same size. 
| Three of them are ^4 
| inch in thickness and 
| taper toward the ends; 
| two are not more than 3 /g 
| inch thick and thus his 
| feet are never tired. His 
| cage is 10x14 inches. A 


Three Little Homeless 
Babies 



The nest in which these little 
chebecks were hatched and reared 
was blown down. The little girl 
picked them up from the ground 
because she was afraid a cat or 
dog would kill them. A few days 
later, when their wings were 
stronger, she put them back in 
the tree and they were able to 
keep out of danger. 


canary cannot be kept | 
comfortable in a cage | 
smaller than this. The | 
cage and its perches are | 
cleaned at least three j 
times a week, and often- | 
er if necessary. The j 
perches are dampened, | 
cleaned and thoroughly | 
dried before they are put | 
back. Damp perches | 
would give Andy rheu- | 
matism. Andy loves to | 
have his cage near the | 
window where he can see | 
what is going on out of | 
doors, but it is never | 
hung directly in the win- J 
dow. It is either sus- j 
pended from a hook or j 
placed on a stand so that | 
it may be far enough | 
from the window so he 1 
will not be in a draft j 
which might give him a | 


864 





iiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim^ PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM *iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinraiiiiiiiiiuiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii^g 

Two Bird Invalids 



In the basket, being fed, is a fox squirrel that bumped his head on a wire and was hurt so that 
he was not able to take care of himself for a few days. A cedar bird is perched on the little boy’s 
hand. He has already had his dinner. A cat attacked him but he managed to escape from her, 
though his wing was badly hurt. Dolls take second place where pets are concerned, you see. 

Some Bluebird Orphans 



The bluebirds, that came to live in the bird house in the garden, deserted their four children dur¬ 
ing a long cold rain storm. The hungry little ones would surely have starved if they had not been 
cared for by the children. After being fed until they were grown up, they were quite tame and often 
came to the children to be fed and petted. H 

........mu........ urn ... . ... mm ............... 


865 













^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiihii^^^ 

| cold and spoil his voice. His cage egg chopped finely with an equal j 

| is never placed in the direct sunshine amount of cracker crumbs and a lib- | 

1 except for a few minutes after he eral sprinkling of cayenne pepper. j 

1 has bathed, when he loves to fluff His cage was hung in a warmer | 


| his feathers and take a 
| sun bath. 

Andy is usually let 
| out of his cage for two 
| hours again in the af- 
| ternoon. As soon as it 
| is dark he retires to his 
| swing and his cage is 
| covered with an enve- 
| lope of thick wrapping 
| paper which fits closely 
| around the bottom of 
| the cage, but is open on 
| the top. Then he tucks 
| his head under his 
| wing and fluffs out his 
| feathers so that he is 
| just a little yellow ball, 
| and falls asleep. 

Last summer, Andy 
| was a very dumpy, si- 
| lent bird, for he was 
| shedding his feathers; 
| this is as hard for a 
| bird to endure as is 
| measles for a child. 
| During this period he 
| was given, in addition 
| .to his other food, the 
| 3'olk of a hard-boiled 


“Poor Birdies !” 



The mother robin was killed 
by a cat and the young ones 
would have suffered the same 
fate if they had not been res¬ 
cued by tender-hearted Roland. 


place and we never | 
scolded him because j 
he did not feel like | 
singing. | 

Pretty soon a mother g 
bird will come to live | 
in the room with Andy, | 
and they will have first | 
some pretty eggs and | 
then some baby birds. | 
The nest will consist of j 
a tin strainer about 3*4 | 
inches wide lined with | 
cotton and covered j 
with cheesecloth, which | 
will be sewed smoothly | 
around the edge of the | 
nest. Both birds will j 
be fed on hard boiled | 
eggs mixed with stale | 
bread, in addition to | 
their seeds and green j 
food. Fourteen days | 
after they are laid, the | 
eggs will hatch and | 
Andy will think those | 
little bare, scrawny, | 
blind birdlings are the | 
most beautiful creatures | 
in the world. 




♦♦ 


866 






LESSONS AT HOME 
A ND AT SCHOO L 

STORIES FOR CHILDREN 


Please Tell it Again 

The Art of the Story Teller 


The Story Hour 


D O YOU remember teasing 
for stories when you were a 
boy or girl? You can well believe 
that you must have done so when 

Can You y° u think how many 

Serve a nonsense rhymes, fa- 

Story 'Meal? bles, fairy tales and 

hero stories you know. And per¬ 
haps you now have a little man 
or maid in your house, a room full 
of eager children in school, or a 
stream of them coming to you in 
a library, to remind you of this 
universal demand of childhood. 
But that children need stories for 
their full mental and moral de¬ 
velopment is a recent discovery of 
Child Study. 


Little 

Miss Hood 
and 

Other Friends 


As to what stories they need, it 
was the children themselves who 
directed the attention to old fa¬ 
vorites. There are classics of 
which the little folks 
never tire. “Tell it 
again” they say of the 
Mother Goose rhymes, 
of Aesop’s Fables, of such ryth¬ 
mic narratives as The Three 
Bears, and of such fairy tales as 
Sleeping Beauty and Red Riding 
Hood. These stories are loved 
because they really are the best 
that the world has ever had to of¬ 
fer, the slowly gathered and pre¬ 
cious culture of ancient peoples of 
East and West. 


H AW 
THORN; 




867 


* 

























^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!ii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!ii!iiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE liiniiuiiiiui^ 

high school age—and nine-tenths of g 
the children never go to high school j 
—were they brought back into a con- | 
tact with the world’s great literature. j 
By that time their taste was per- | 
verted. | 

The Great Story Telling Movement § 

In recent years experiments have j 



“The Legend’’ Painted by George Paul Chalmers of the Royal Scottish Academy 


Here is a group of Scotch children listening to an old Scotch woman telling one of the numerous 
legends in which the history of Scotland abounds. Did you know that from such native story¬ 
tellers the boy who afterward became Sir Walter Scott, one of the most famous story-tellers of all 
time, learned many of the tales and legends recorded in his delightful works? 


H Legends, Epics of History for Older 

Children 

| Nor did we think that, beyond 
| this folk lore, there was a vast body 
| of legend, epic tale and history, 
| story of even greater cultural value, 
| that was actually being withheld, to 
1 the infinite loss of the older children 


| who were supposed to have out- 
| grown their love for stories. When 
| the child went to school he had a 
| Why dull uninspired reader 

| Children^ by anonymous writers, 

I ful 'Boohs as if to read were an 
| end in itself and not a means, and 
[ all his other text books dealt with 
| figures, names and dates—colorless 
| facts. Craving life, adventure, ro- 
| mance, the adolescent boy gradu- 
| ated into Diamond Dick and Jesse 
| James, the girl into the Elsie books 
| and silly love stories. Not until the 


been tried, in the school room, pub¬ 
lic library and social settlement home 
to put life into geography and his¬ 
tory lessons, to improve 
children’s taste in read¬ 
ing and just frankly to 
add joy to the sordid 
lives of the poor,by story 
telling. In a country school house a 
teacher told the stories of the Hia¬ 
watha cycle and re-created the red 
world of America. In Hull House, 
Chicago, boot-blacks, “newsies” and 
“little mothers” with big babies, fol- 


Stories 
In Libraries 
And Other 
Public 
Institutions 






868 






** 


= (( 


STORIES FOR CHILDREN 

lowed the careers of King Arthur 
and his Knights for many weeks, 
until a boy ran out crying that the 
good king” was dead! In libraries, 
children doubled up with laughter 
over the comical negro yarn of The 
Tar Baby, or followed with breath¬ 
less interest the voyage of Jason for 
the Golden Fleece; and they went 
home with Uncle Remus or Haw- 
Teachmg thorne’s Wonder Book. 

s _±°Dt The n—all at once, it 

seemed—normal schools 
and kindergarten and library col¬ 
leges had courses in the theory and 
practice of story telling. Ancient 
and modern classics began to be 
ransacked for material, by trained 
writers and educators, and publish¬ 
ers vied with each other in putting 
the tried and true-blue stories into 
usable shape for the story teller and 
the children. 




H Telling 


ers, as is illustrated by the hero sto¬ 
ries of the Old Testament and the 
parables of the New. With the close 
Qu estion of study that is now made 
Material of the effect of stories on 
and Method character formation has 

come a new sense of responsibility. 
“A story/’ told in any way, will no 
longer do. “What story?” is the 
question and “When?” and “How?” 
What story should be told to any 
particular child or groups of children 
at a given age? Are they four years 
old, or ten or fourteen? What are 
their interests? Are they of Amer¬ 
ican or foreign birth? Do they know 
and love animals? Are they city or 
country children? What sort of peo¬ 
ple do they admire and try to imi¬ 
tate? What do their lives lack of 
practical experience and mental and 
moral stimulus? 


Revival of the Story Teller’s Art 

Best of all the art of story-telling 
has been revived. We all know that 
some people tell stories better than 
An Art others. It is a social as- 
for set everywhere, and of 

EveryOne which mothers and teach¬ 

ers are the chief inventors; a gift 
that, like singing, writing and paint¬ 
ing, can be cultivated. Training in 
the art involves a study of the psy¬ 
chology of childhood; a knowledge 
of sources, of dramatic expression 
and control of the voice, and an op¬ 
portunity to hear good models. Prac¬ 
tice must be had also to learn, each 
his own capabilities—what kind of 
stories he tells best. 

Effect of Stories in Character Forming 

The power of the story to influ¬ 
ence conduct always has been under¬ 
stood and consciously used by the 
world’s religious and political lead¬ 


Why Primitive Stories Interest Children 

Broadly speaking, every child re¬ 
peats, in his growth from infancy to 
manhood,the experiences of the race. 
In the classical rhymes, fables and 
tales that have perennial charm are 
preserved the ideas and ideals of 
nations at every stage of their de¬ 
velopment. The jingle and non- 

WhyNon- sense rhyme grew from 
sense Rhymes a crude sense of music 
Attract and 0 £ humor, and they 

tickle the fancy of the smallest chil¬ 
dren who are in the primitive stage. 
It is exciting and funny, but not ab¬ 
surd, that the cow jumped over the 
moon and the little dog laughed. A 
baby cries for the moon thinking it 
within reach. His toes are play¬ 
mates readily conceived as little pigs 
—papa’s foot is the cock-horse going 
to Banbury Cross; Santa Claus and 
brownies and fairies are real people. 
Before these nonsense rhymes are 
exhausted, a child is ready for The 


* 


US 


869 



$11 


PICTURED 

House that Jack Built, The Three 
Bears, The Little Pig that Wouldn’t 
Go Over the Stile, and other rhyth¬ 
mic stories. These narratives con¬ 
sist of a few familiar elements 
touched with mystery. They are all 
Why Child- action; each event is a 
ren Like complete image, and the 

Relation repetition knits the inci¬ 
dents together, relieving the strain 
on attention. The child finds the 
same pleasure in the recurrence of a 
phrase or sentence that a grown per¬ 
son feels in the recurrence of melody 
in music. 

Before a child enters the kinder¬ 
garten he should know the nursery 
favorites that can be had for a few 
cents, and with gorgeous illustra¬ 
tions, in any book store or toy shop. 
He should know such fables as The 
Lion and the Mouse, and The Tor¬ 
toise and the Hare, and 
should have learned to 
laugh at such humorous 
stories as The Greedy 
Cat and The Wise Men 
of Gotham. Little chil¬ 
dren need to have their 
taste in fun cultivated. 

The comic sections of 
newspapers with alleged 
humorous deformities, 
trickery, vulgarity and 
impudence, should not 
amuse them. 

Good Humor—Not Cruel 
Humor 

A funny story belongs 
to every age. It is a sad 
world to one who cannot 
laugh; an inhuma n 
world when it seems 
funny to see a dog tor¬ 
mented with a tin can 
rattling at his tail, or a 
passer-by injured by a 
slip on a banana skin. 


KNOWLEDGE 

And children who have never | 
laughed with Uncle Remus, or | 
known the comic animals of The | 
Jungle Book or the delightful ab- | 
surdities of Alice in Wonderland, | 
will hardly be able to appreciate | 
Mark Twain and Don Quixote and | 
the great comedies of the drama. 

Good Stories are Good Teachers 

There are, of course, thousands of | 
funny stories—good, bad and indif- | 
ferent. Story tellers should draw | 
from all sources, for the folk-lore of | 
each people reflects their racial char- j 
acteristics. They introduce children | 

Where the to strange people and far- | 
Good Always away places sympathet- § 
Triumph ically, and pave the way | 

to understanding of geography, his- j 
tory and literature. The code of j 
ethics of the good fairy story is sim- | 

Cinderella I 


♦♦ 


A 


870 











STORIES FOR CHILDREN 

j pie and strong—good always over- dust of old mythologies—crude po- | 


| comes evil. A typical one is that of 
| the gentle and loving girl, whose 
| beautiful lips dropped pearls when 
| she spoke, while the ill-tempered, 
I selfish one’s mouth dropped toads. 

Old Stories that Need Editing 

But a few of the favorites need 
| modification. For obvious reasons 
| the cruel step-mother should be 
| omitted from Cinderella. In Red 
| Riding Hood the wolf is no longer 
| allowed to eat the grandmother. In- 
| deed, the dear old lady is clever 
| enough to outwit him by crawling 
| under the bed. 

When Your Baby Meets the Fairies 

Fairy tales, with their wealth of 
| color and incident, cultivate the im- 
J agination. Without imagination, hu- 
| man beings are “dull, driven cattle,” 
| without joy, initiative or invention. 
| Without it no one could build a 
| ^ house or furnish it, de- 

I -Star Dust" sign an engine, get a 
| of Old dinner or make a dress. 

| Mythologies And fairy stories have 

| come to be treated with vast respect 
| since it has been discovered that 
| childhood’s classics have found place 
| in epics and have been given new 
| form in modern poems and paint- 
| ings. The adult finds the Sleeping 
| Beauty again in lyric by Tennyson 
| and in Wagner’s opera of Siegfried. 
| Aeolus and the Bag of Wind, the 
| college youth finds in The Odyssey. 
| Other stories of unknown origin and 
| no special honor refuse to die, and 
| chance illusions to them call up vivid 
j images—Aladdin, the splendid East, 
| The Ugly Duckling, the cold North. 
| In libraries, fairy stories are charac- 
| terized as “non-fiction,” for they 
| were not invented, but grew as nat- 
| urally as trees. They are the star 


etic attempts to explain the universe | 
by prehistoric peoples. A few fairy | 
stories of merit have been invented | 
in Modern times, but compared with | 
the old ones they have small vitality. | 

The Mission of the Myths 

The Greek, Norse and Indian | 
myths should be given to a child as | 
early as he can grasp them. The | 
myth is, as one writer puts it, “The | 
Voice of a people calling on God.” | 

Explaining Tt > t0 °> .' S the Story ° f | 
the Wonders explanation of the uni- | 
of Nature verse before natural laws | 
were understood. In myths is the | 
daily glory of the sun, the wonder | 
of water and fire, frost and storm, j 
plant and animal life. So many of | 
them are stories of flowers, birds, j 
rivers and animals, they awaken in | 
children a love of nature and quick- | 
en their observation. The sun is the j 
chariot of Apollo, the moon, of Di- | 
ana, the rosy dawn, the garment of j 
Aurora. Under a volcano is the j 
forge of Vulcan. Neptune rides the | 
stormy sea. Thunder is the bolt of | 
Jove or Thor. A child can under- | 
stand the story of Arachne the spin- | 
ner, and get some notion of the | 
amazing cleverness of the garden | 
spider. He can learn the useful les- | 
son of curbing idle curiosity in lis- | 
tening to the story of Pandora’s Box, | 
and the pleasures of hospitality in | 
The Miraculous Pitcher. 

The Greek and Norse mythologies | 
furnish stories of great variety, but | 
the American Indian and Negro | 
myths are more primitive and have | 
T j. j an earlier appeal. The i 

Indian and 1 1 n 

Negro stories of Uncle Remus | 

Myths are nature myths. Many | 

of them originated in Africa, and | 
they are a pathetic revelation of the | 
unresisting black race, as timid and | 


& 

♦♦ 


♦♦ 


8 7 r 


iiniiiniinniiiiiniiiiiniiiiiuifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiitiN 


^luuiufuiiimiiiiiuiijiiiiijuiiiiiiiiumuiiiimuuuiuiuijiiiiiiuiiiiiuiui PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


helpless as Br’er Rabbit. The shifts 
and craft to which the animal is put 
to outwit his foes, inject sympathetic 
understanding into the race question. 
But he makes no maudlin appeal, 
and for pure fun there are no bet¬ 
ter stories. The childish ideas, the 
dialect and the quaint charm of in¬ 
genuousness are inimitably humor¬ 
ous. 

Hiawatha is our epic of the red 
man—the single example of an epic 
of modern invention. It lives be¬ 
cause it is based on the genuine 
myths, legends and traditions, and 
in form it is primitive, being mod¬ 
eled after The Kalevala, the Finnish 

Epic—rhythm and rep- 
Interest of etition without rhyme. 

the Its pictures of wild 

Hmwatha American life, in the 

forest and by the stream, 
its love of nature, its religious ideals, 
and its heroism are authentic. And 
the cycle of stories is in the true epic 
style, grouped around the birth, life 
and death of a national hero. No 
other story in literature is so well 
fitted for use with a great number of 
young children. In the school room 
it may be made the basis of months 
of work in oral and written English, 
in drawing, modelling, history, ge¬ 
ography and, finally, of dramatic 
representation. 

The Epic Compared with the Fairy Tale 

The stories of Ulysses, Beowulf, 
Siegfried, King Arthur and Roland 
come later. These legendary cycles 
form the link between the myths and 

Strihin history. The epic has 

Example of all the good qualities of 
theSfintxial the f a l r y tale, plus the 

m ° ys continuity and complete¬ 

ness of biography. King Arthur’s 
life is as full of action and as roman¬ 
tic as that of the hero of a dime 


novel. It is a “continued in our next 
story that may run through the story 
hour week after week, and may be 
divided into chapters, each one com¬ 
plete in itself but exciting interest in 
the next. In a small park library in 
Chicago, nearly a hundred boys left 
the skating pond to listen to the 
spiritual adventures of The Quest 
for the Holy Grail. The Round 
Table stories are usually told in log¬ 
ical order: The Coming of Arthur, 
Launcelot and the Giants, Founding 
the Round Table, The Knighting of 
Sir Tor, Gareth, The Kitchen Boy 
knight, The Holy Grail, Sir Gala- 
had, Launcelot and the Tourney, 
Launcelot and Elaine, Enid and 
Geraint, the Last Great Battle and 
The Return of the Sword Excalibur, 
Guinevere at Amesbury. 

When All Boys Are Knights 

This is a model for telling all the 
epic stories. Ulysses, Beowulf and 
Siegfried interest children as young 
as ten, but Arthur comes later. He 
And Girls is the British hero of 
LiheKnightly chivalry and Roland is 
the French. In the early 
years of adolescence every boy is a 
knight. He admires both physical 
and moral courage. Robin Hood and 
his merry men in Sherwood Forest 
also captures the boy of this age and 
there is great value in the attractive 
pictures of out-of-door life and 
manly sports, and fine literary stand¬ 
ards in the old ballads, but these 
things are off-set by making a hero 
of an outlaw. The story should be 
given later in the adolescent period 
when young people can be interested 
in studying the historic setting—the 
abuses of a time that preceded, the 
conditions that produced such a re¬ 
dresser of the wrongs of the poor, 
and made of him a popular hero. 




If = 


$♦: 




872 


f"... 1 l '' l '»" l ''''»"'"'™™''«‘»rauirauiuiir.imiiirrnBiii STORIES FOR CHILDREN .... mmmmmm .inK 

Robinson Crusoe 



Special Appeals to Girls 

Up to a certain age, the same 
| stories appeal to both boys and girls. 
1 There is no sex in the arts. But 
| since men are the chief characters in 
| the great stories, pains should be 
| taken to emphasize the part that 
| women play. Penelope, Brunhilde, 
| Maid Marian, Elaine, Enid, Lynette, 
| Minnehaha, should be impressed as 
| important personages on both boys 

| Heroines of and g irIs ; And the girls 
| History and have their own epic her- 
| Fiction oine in Joan of Arc, and 

| many a notable figure in myth, leg- 
| end, history and fiction. There are 
| St. Elizabeth of Hungary, Molly 
| Stark, Jeannie Deans, Juliet, Portia, 
| Florence Nightingale, Grace Dar- 
| ling and other heroines whose deeds 
| inspire. 

Introduction to the Love Story 

When sex feeling awakens, it 
| should have proper recognition in 
| stories of noble and romantic love, 
| such as those of Dante and Beatrice, 
| Jacob and Rachel, Romeo and Juliet, 
| Lincoln and Anne Rutledge, Enoch 


Arden, Evangeline. Such stories i 
that dignify love will help young | 

Love Stories People to get safely over | 

and the silly period. This | 

Adolescence phase of adolescence is | 

helped also by stories of Moses, Da- j 

vid, Joseph, St. Paul, Luther, St. | 
Francis of Assisi, Father Damien j 
and other religious heroes, and in | 
introducing the young people to | 
Dante and Milton; for this emo- | 
tional period is the one in which | 
religion most strongly appeals. 

True Stories of Men and Nature 

To tell history stories one need not j 
wait until children begin to question : j 
“Is it a true story!” But just as | 
soon as the question comes, the chil- j 
dren are ready for the true nature | 
story and the historical tale dealing | 
with authentic characters. Now, there | 
are many scientific accounts of the | 
habits of animals and many fascin- | 

Place of the atin g stories of animals, | 
Animal but there are few accu- g 

Story rate studies of animal | 

life that are, at the same time, tell- | 
able stories. Aesop is not scientific, j 


j": 




873 





^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiraniiiiM 


| nor is Uncle Remus nor Black 
| Beauty, yet all these are valuable. 
| The main purpose of the animal 
| story is to foster a sense of in- 
| timacy and brotherhood with lower 
| life. Ernest Thompson Seton’s sym- 
| pathetic studies are in the best form 
| for the story teller. So are Kip- 
| ling’s Jungle Book and the works of 
| G. C. Roberts and William Long. 
| In the books of John Burroughs and 
| Olive Thorne Miller is much ma- 
| terial that can be adapted by the 
| clever story teller. Besides Rab and 
I his Friends and other dog stories of 


Some of the 
True Dog 
Stories 


Dr. John Brown, and 
Ouida’s Dog of Fland¬ 
ers, there are a number 
of collections of true dog stories. The 
point is that the boy who can be 
brought to like intimate peeps into 
animal life will graduate into an ap¬ 
preciation of Burroughs, Thoreau 
and good old Isaak Walton. And he 
will not torment cats and dogs nor 
rob birds’ nests. 


Stories About Historic Personages 

Of true histories, there is an em- 
| barrassment of riches. A great num- 
| berof them,such as that of Whitting- 
| ton and His Cat, Bruce and The 

Spider, William Tell and 
The Boy Who Saved the 
Dyke, are half legend, 
but are stories of histor- 
| ical persons and, like that of Wash- 
| ington’s hatchet and Captain Smith 
| and Pocahontas, they refuse to die. 
| Every one of them bears a moral les- 
[ son so simple and strong that very 
| young children can grasp them. As 
| with the legend, the history stories 
| that are told to children should be 
| full of adventure and the spirit of 
| youth. The lives of Franklin, Jef- 
j ferson and Goethe are inspiring to 
| grown people, but immature minds 


= Stories 
= That Are 
| Half 
§ Legend 


cannot appreciate such quiet lives. | 
But they can understand stories of | 
high ideals, moral courage and deeds | 
of great human service, so these | 
qualities are brought out in action, | 

Danger a nd ^at without Using | 

of the the swash-buckling mili- j 

Military tary conqueror. “Who | 

was Alexander, pa, that | 
people call him great?” the child | 
asked in the old poem. He was | 
much more than a fighter, to be sure, | 
as were Caesar and Napoleon, but a | 
child cannot understand constructive | 
statesmanship, and history does not | 
present the lovable human side of | 
these world subduers as it does of | 
King Alfred, Joan of Arc and j 
Washington. The very best of all | 
statesmen and patriots to give the | 
child is Lincoln; the best modern | 
military hero, “Chinese” Gordon. If | 
Gordon had lived in the old days he | 
would have been the hero of an j 
epic, so varied and splendid were his | 
adventures and deeds; so noble his | 
character, so heroic his death. Lin- | 
coin is the one true epic figure that | 
has been produced by our brief his- g 
tory. | 


Explorers, Pioneers and Heroes of Inven¬ 
tion and Service 

Of explorers, Columbus towers 
above all other heroes, and LaSalle 
and Sir John Franklin are appealing 
figures; of patriots, the story teller 
may well choose Nathan Hale and 
Arnold Winkelreid; of 
backwoodsmen, Daniel 
Boone, Audubon the 
bird lover, and Johnny 
Appleseed, the pioneer orchard 
planter; of pathfinders, Lewis and 
Clark and Zebulon Pike; of naval 
fighters, Paul Jones, Farragut and 
Nelson. But it must not be forgot¬ 
ten that there are heroes of science, 
invention, the arts and industries, 


The Child's 
Heritage 

of 

Heroes 


J' 4 ' 


874 


& 


lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


STORIES FOR CHILDREN 


8 


| literature, philanthropy and mercy 
| Davy, Watt, Moore, Thorwaldsen, 
I Beethoven, Tolstoi and Stevenson, 
| Florence Nightingale, Palissy, Fa- 
! ther Damien. Stories of heroic po- 
| licemen, engineers, firemen, wireless 
| operators and health officers have 
| been collected and are now a part 
| of the study of civics. 

| Work of the “Story Lady” 

Outside of the folk tale, that time 
| has stripped of superfluities, there 
| are few stories that are in just the 
| right form for telling orally. A 
1 good “story lady” will analyze any 
| story, reduce one too long, amplify 
| one too short, gather from other 
| sources local color and detail that is 
| lacking, cut out tedious descriptions 
| and unnecessary people and inci- 
! dents. 

As no singer sings all songs 
| equally well, so a story teller must, 
| by watching effects, learn her limi- 
| tations. A good rule is that she 
| should never tell a story in which 
1 n . she herself is not inter- 

H b’ersonal 

| Interest ested. She should feel 

| its fun, its pathos, its no- 

| U1 e bility, and laugh and 

| shed tears with her audience. Then 
| she should face a half circle of chil- 
| dren, if possible, and tell her story 
| simply, directly, dramatically, with 
| zest as “little orphant Annie” told 
| her stories. Children should never 
| be talked down to. They follow a 
| story that is far beyond their ability 
| to read. Nor should the moral be 
| pointed out. In a really good story 
| the moral will take care of itself. 
| The test of success is a big-eyed au- 
| dience listening with breathless in- 
| terest—then a long-drawn sigh of 
| happiness, then a “Please tell an- 
| other one!” 

If well told, in school, the chil- 


(jreat 

Educational 
Value 
of the 
Story 


dren will always want to talk about | 
a story, write about it, draw, paint | 
and model it, dress up and act it, | 
ransack reference books | 
to find out more about it, | 
live it. In Forestville | 
School, Chicago,the chil- | 
dren have for years pre- | 
sented such plays as Shakespeare’s | 
“Midsummer Night’s Dream” intel- | 
ligently and charmingly, designing | 
costumes and stage scenery. After | 
a library story hour, the children | 
want the books in which the same or | 
similar stories are found, to take | 
home to read. And the books should | 
be on hand to be read while interest | 
is fresh. | 

Giving Variety to the Program 

A story-hour program should j 
have variety. There should always | 
be a humorous story, a nature story | 
or myth, a hero story and—for little | 
children—a rhythmic or fairy tale. | 
For older children, where the same | 
ones can be brought together once a | 
Seeking week, an epic should run | 

serially. Then there | 
should be a biographical j 
hero story, a nature story and a hu- | 
morous one, such as Don Quixote | 
and the Windmill. For example, a | 
good Christmas program for lit- | 
tie people would include the Indian | 
myth, “Why Evergreen Trees Keep [ 
Their Leaves in Winter” (Nature | 
Myths by Holbrook), “The Bird’s j 
Christmas Carol,” by Wiggin, to | 
teach the duty and pleasure of shar- | 
ing with others; the story of “Snow j 
Baby” (Peary’s little daughter who | 
was born in an Eskimo village) and | 
“The Greedy Cat,” a rhythmic fairy j 
tale that, in a humorous way, de- | 
scribes the penalties of over eating, j 
This is in Dasent’s Norse collection. | 
For older children, Howell’s “Christ- | 


Fresh 
Materia1 




*♦ 


875 



^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih PICTURED KNOWLEDGE yuuiuoiiiiii™^ 


Aesop 


| mas Every Day in 
| the Year’’ supplies 
| the fun; John Bur- 
| roughs’ account of 
| his little wild win- 
| ter neighbors, the 
| nature interest; the 
| story of Sir John 
| Franklin, heroism, 
| and ‘'The Vision of 
| Sir Launfal ” “The 
| Other Wise Man” 
1 or “W hen the 



Chimes Rang,” the j 
spiritual meaning j 
of Christmas. The | 
story teller should | 
avoid the stereo- | 
typed, and should | 
hunt for the little j 
known. The best | 
success cannot be j 
had without a wide j 
knowledge and ap- g 
preciation of the j 
best in literature. 


Story Books and Books About Story Telling 


Text Books. Stories to Tell Children 
I and How to Tell Stories to Children, by 
1 Sara Cone Bryant; Story Telling, What to 
I Tell and How to Tell It, by Edna Lyman; 
1 The Story Hour, a magazine published in 
| Washington, D. C.; The Story Hour, by 
1 Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora E. Smith; 
1 Some Great Stories and How to Tell 
I Them, by Richard Thomas Wyche. 

Sources of Rhymes, Fables, and Fairy 
1 Tales. Mother Goose, yFsop’s Fables, The 
1 Nursery Rhyme Book, collected by Andrew 
1 Lang, the works of Hans Christian An¬ 
il dersen, Jacob Grimm, The Arabian Nights, 
| collections and translations by Andrew 
1 Lang, Joseph Jacobs, Sir George Dasent, 
1 Johnson, Scudder, Laboulaye. Kipling’s 
g Jungle Book and Just So Stories and the 
g Golden Window, by Laura E. Richards, 
g should be in every library. Compton has 
1 collected Indian fairy tales and Ozaki, 
I Williston, Roulet and Dutton, the Jap- 
g anese. Donegal Fairy Stories are retold 
g by the Irish writer, Seamus McManus. 


Myths: Nature Myths by Flora J. | 

Cooke, Nature Myths and Through the § 
Year in Myth and Song by Florence Hoi- g 
brook. Old Greek Stories by the poet, g 
Josephine Preston Peabody, Greek Heroes g 
by Charles Kingsley, The Wonder Book g 
and Tanglewood Tales by Hawthorne, i 
Wigwam Nights by Dr. Charles East- g 
man, a full blooded Sioux, Wigwam g 
Stories by Judd, The Basket Woman g 
by Mary Austin. Norse myths have g 
been collected by Guerber, Hamilton g 
Mabie, Sarah Bradish, and Sir George | 
Dasent, Myths of the Middle Ages by S. § 
Baring Gould, Gleaninvs in Buddha Fields g 
(Japan) by Lafcadio Hearn. 

Epics and Legends. Hiawatha by Long- g 
fellow, The Odyssey for Boys and Girls I 
by Church and by Andrew Lang, The 1 
Golden Age by Baldwin. A story teller g 
should have the original Mallory on the | 
King Arthur Cycle, but work from Tenny- g 
son’s Idylls of the King, and from Sid- g 
ney Lanier’s Boy’s King Arthur or How- | 


iS 


876 




:||||||||||||||||||||||||||I1II1IIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII.. STORIES FOR CHILDREN ....mini...1111111113 


| ard Pyle’s three books. Marshall’s is the 
g standard account of Beowulf, the Saxon 
1 hero, and this is well told by Madame Rag- 
1 ozin, the author of similar condensations 
1 of Siegfried and Roland. Baldwin’s Ro- 
1 land and his Siegfried are good. The Cid 
| (Spanish legendary hero) by C. D. Wil- 
! son, Sigurd the Volsung (Norse and Ice- 
1 landic) by William Morris, Rustem the 
1 Wonder Child (Persian epic of Shah 
| Nameh, rivalling the Arabian Nights), 
I translated recently by Elizabeth Reninger, 
| The Kalevala (Finnish), translated by 
I Crawford. Joseph Jacobs, Lady Gregory 
1 and other Irish writers have collected many 
| tales of Ireland’s heroic periods of Cuchul- 
| lin and of Finn. 

Nature. Wild Animals I have Known, 
I Lives of the Hunted, Animal Heroes and 
1 other books ’ by Ernest Thompson Seton. 
| Uncle Remus books by Joel Chandler 
| Harris; Jungle Book and Just So Stories 
I by Rudyard Kipling; the works of Wil- 
| liam Long, G. D. Roberts and Dallas 
1 Love Sharp, Animal Story Book by An- 
| drew Lang, Pierson’s three books on Farm, 
1 Meadow and Ni_* t People, Animal Studies 
1 by John Burroughs and Bird Books by 
| Olive Thorne Miller, Rab and His Friends 
1 and other Dog Stories by Dr. John Brown. 
I Dog of Flanders by Ouida, True Dog Stor- 
1 ies by Sarah K. Bolton and The London 
1 Spectator, Black Beauty, Greyfriar’s Bobby 
1 by Eleanor Atkinson. 

Biographical: Baldwin’s Fifty Famous 
1 Stories, Lang’s True Story Books and 
| Children’s Hero series, Poor Boys and 
i Poor Girls who Became Famous by Sarah 
I K. Bolton, Life Stories for Young People 
g by Upton, Days of Alfred the Great and 
I Days of William the Conqueror by Tap- 
| pan. Brave Deeds by Trowbridge, Stories 
1 of Old France by Pitman, Historic Boys 
| by Brooks, Joan of Arc by Francis C. 
I Lowell, Boys’ Book of Famous Rulers by 
1 Farmer, American Hero Stories by Tappan, 

I Discovery of the Old Northwest by Tap- 

II pan, Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley by 
I McMurry, Boys’ Life of Napoleon, of Wil- 
I liam Tell and of General (Chinese) Gordon 
| by Marshall, Robert Bruce by Jeanie 
1 Lang, Boys’ Life of Lincoln by Helen 
I Nicolay, The Boyhood of Lincoln by 
| Eleanor Atkinson. Heroes Every Child 
I Should Know by Hamilton Mabie. 


Miscellaneous Stories in General Litera- I 
ture. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, Long- § 
fellow’s Tales of a Wayside Inn, Evange- g 
line and Miles Standish (Puritan Life and g 
Character), When the King Came (New I 
Testament Stories) by Dean Hodges, Tales g 
from Shakespeare by Charles and Mary g 
Lamb. Ruskin’s King of the Golden River, g 
Miss Muloch’s Little Lame Prince and The g 
Adventures of a Brownie, and Oscar g 
Wilde’s Happy Prince are modern fairy | 
stories that rank with the classics. E. E. I 
Hale’s Man Without a Country, Van | 
Dyke’s The Other Wise Man and the First | 
Christmas Tree, Lowell’s Vision of Sir g 
Launfal, Lew Wallace’s The First Christ- g 
mas, Kate Douglas Wiggin’s The Bird’s g 
Christmas Carol, Howell’s Christmas Every I 
Day in the Year, Dickens’ The Chimes, g 
Alder’s Why the Chimes Rang, Mater- | 
linck’s Blue Bird, Barrie’s Peter and I 
Wendy (Peter Pan in story form) Mrs. g 
Wiggin’s Timothy’s Quest, Dickens’ The 1 
Cricket on the Hearth and A Child’s Dream g 
of a Star, Robinson Crusoe (self-reliance | 
cycle), Ouida’s Bimbi and the Nuremburg g 
Stove, George Eliot’s Effie and the Miser g 
from Silas Marner, Browning’s Pied Piper g 
of Hamelin, Irving’s Legend of Sleepy Hoi- g 
low, Stevenson’s Markheim and Will-o-the- g 
Mill, Tennyson’s Enoch Arden, Poe’s The g 
Gold Bug, Fouque’s Undine, Goethe’s Her- g 
mann and Dorothea, Mrs. Burnett’s Faunt- g 
leroy, Edytha’s Burglar, Sara Crewe and | 
The Secret Garden, Lafcadio Hearn’s Nun I 
of the Temple of Anida (Japanese, in | 
Kokora), Story of Jeanie Dean in Scott’s g 
Heart of Midlothian, Scott’s Lady of the g 
Lake and The Lay of the Last Minstrel, g 
Thanksgiving at Plumfield Farm in Louisa 1 
M. Alcott’s Little Men, Alcott’s Joe’s Boys, g 
Howell’s When the Turkey Turned the g 
Tables, Wiggin’s Story of the Lilac Bush, g 
Mary Mapes Dodge’s Hans Brinker and the g 
Silver Skates, Hawthorne’s Great Stone g 
Face and the Story of Hilda in The Marble g 
Faun. Selections from Gulliver’s Travels, I 
Don Quixote and several of Mark Twain’s g 
books, McLaren’s The Bonnie Briar Bush, g 
A collection is now to be had of the stories g 
of the children of Charles Dickens. These I 
are a few of the many beautiful stories I 
to be found in general literature that the g 
story teller may adapt for oral use for g 
varying ages. § 


/ 


..I...mi...mill . mi .IIIIIIIIIII. . . iiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii . . . . . . 


8 77 





PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiHiiiiiiiiiiiiK 


Three Bugs 

Three little bugs in a basket, 

And hardly room for two! 

And one was yellow, and one was black, 

And one like me, or you. 

The space was small, no doubt, for all; 

But what should three bugs do? 

Three little bugs in a basket, 

And hardly crumbs for two; 

And all were selfish in their hearts, 

The same as I or you; 

So the strong ones said, “We will eat the bread. 

And that is what we’ll do.” 

Three little bugs in a basket, 

And the beds but two would hold; 

So they all three fell to quarreling ,— 

The white, and black, and the gold; 

And two of the bugs got under the rugs, 

And one was out in the cold! 

So he that was left in the basket, 

Without a crumb to chew, 

Or a thread to wrap himself withal, 

When the wind across him blew, 

Pulled one of the rugs from one of the bugs. 

And so the quarrel grew. 

And so there was war in the basket, 

Oh, pity ’tis, 'tis true! 

But he that was frozen, and starved, at last 
A strength from his weakness drew, 

And pulled the rugs from both of the bugs, 

And killed and ate them too! 

Now when bugs live in a basket, 

Though more than it well can hold, 

It seems to me they had better agree ,— 

The white, and the black, and the gold — 

And share what comes of the beds and the crumbs, 
And leave no bug in the cold! 

Alice Cary 


Si 


S 


878 




O NCE there was a lady who 
wanted to give a Christmas 
present to a dear little girl friend. 
What should it be? Not a pres¬ 
ent, that anyone could go into a 
store and buy, but the present 
that would be mixed up with 
o-o-oh the best times! What 
do you suppose it turned out to 
be? 

A “play lady” dress! 

What One Lady Did 

She remembered that, when she 
was a child, next to dolls she just 


loved to dress up in an old, rustly 
, silk gown of mother’s, 

Way Lady a hat with a feather, 

Too? a lace parasol, and go 

calling. She was careful to visit 
only those neighbors who would 
not laugh, but could make believe 
she was really grown up. . 

So she made a lovely “play 

The Toy lady” dress out of an 

Indian old, sapphire-blue sat¬ 

in coat lining. It had a train, lace 
ruffles and sparkly buttons. That 


% V 


879 




































lll!llllllllllll!llllllllll!lllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllllllllll PICTURED 

| was such a bright idea that she made 
| a boy an Indian costume, with a 
| fearful feather head-dress. Such 
| squealing over those presents! 

The Joy of “Just Pretending” 


KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiliiiiliiiilllilillim 

scenery on old sheets. They did g 
everything themselves ; and when g 
they lacked anything, the people | 
who came to see the plays had to use g 

A Modern Court 



You love to pretend you are 
some one else, don’t you? It’s 
just as easy! All you have to 
do is to say : “Let’s play like,” 
and you are queens, knights, 
fairies, pirates or animals. You 
can play “keeping school”, be 
~ u . castaways on a des- 

CJueens, fair- . J 

ies, Knights ert island, be 

and School pirates, or lovely 

Teachers . , 

maidens impris¬ 
oned in towers, or play house¬ 
keeping and have tea parties. 
You don’t really need cos¬ 
tumes or stage setting, or any¬ 
one to look on and clap hands. 
But sometimes, at parties, you 
play charades, making up a 
play on a word, or you have 
tableaus. 


Play Actors in “Little Women” 

But wouldn’t you like to act 
a story play? You can do it, 
really. In Miss Alcott’s story 
of “Little Women”, Jo and 
Meg, Beth and Amy and 
Laurie acted plays in the attic 
p. or barn. Jo was the 

or Six clever, literary girl. 

People She wrote the little 

m 0ne plays herself, and 

each one took five or six parts. 

Jo liked to play villains and 
ghosts and haughty queens. 

Meg was always the fair maiden 
with a lover. Amy was the fairy 
queen, and Beth the messenger. 
They had such fun making their 
costumes out of rags and tags and 
old velvet gowns; in turning carpen¬ 
ter to put up a stage; in painting 


Three lines deep at the back stand the sturdy Sixth 
Grade knights of the Table Round of the University 
School, Detroit. Brave Sir Launcelot, Sir Galahad, Per- 
civa, and Bedivere—they are all here with their armor, 
helmets, spears and ribbon sword-bands. In front are 
the Fifth Grade pages and squires, in training for knight¬ 
hood but not yet deemed worthy of that honorable estate. 

their imagination, as Jo said. 

Why Not Do It in Your School, Too? 

You could do that, too. The “little | 
women” were natural girls, not a | 
bit more clever than could be found, | 
perhaps, in your school. All children j 
are good at making believe. Once | 




nW 


880 






DRAMATIZATION BY CHILDREN 


| people did not think anything of 
| this, except that it was a way that 
| little people had of amusing them- 
! selves. But now, wise men and 

of King Arthur 


in the 

Kindergarten 


What a Wonderful Little Big World 

Tell mama and teacher about that. 
Play acting is used in every kinder¬ 
garten. The cunning little tots 
are flying birds, trotting horses, 

The Poet bus y bees > growly 
Actors bears, hammering 

blacksmiths and car¬ 
penters. Every little 
game and folk song has its action, 
helping to fix the idea. And in 
the first grade, children build up 
Indian villages, on sand tables, 
making arrows, tents, canoes and 
warriors out of paper, clay, sticks 
and colors. After that, in the 
middle grades, it is more a mat¬ 
ter of books. And those are the 
years when boys and girls play 
make believe most, out of school 
hours. 


Each is squire to a particular knight and wears 
that knight’s colors. At the left is King Arthur him¬ 
self viewing this gathering of chivalry. Near him 
stands his royal bugler. In the center is King Arthur 
as represented by the children, gorgeous in royal 
purple robes and a golden crown. Below him is his 
jester, ready to make the court merry with his antics. 

| women, who really study children 
| say that this love of play acting 
| should be made use of in education. 
1 Dr. Eliot, late president of Harvard 
| University, has said : “Here is a tre- 
| mendous power that should be used 
| by every school in the country, and 
| I believe that it is going to be.” 


How to Give a Fine Play 

But if you had a chance to give 
a real play, with a story in it, and 
printed parts to learn, wouldn’t 
you study hard to do 
it right? You would 
scour libraries to find 
out all about the his¬ 
toric period, the proper scenery 
and costumes. The boys would 
work after school hours and on 
Saturdays, to make a stage on the 
platform of the school assembly 
hall. They could screen off 
dressing rooms with denim or 
burlaps, hang a front curtain, 
make exits at the back, right 
and left. The girls would design 
and make the costumes of the cheap¬ 
est materials—cheesecloth, cambric, 
cotton crepe and tissue paper. Cur¬ 
tain cords, old feathers, paper flow¬ 
ers, tinsel from the Christmas tree, 
shawls and blankets can all be used. 
A fine Roman toga can be made 
from a sheet. The furniture, too, 


Ha fifty 
VC^ork for 
the Boys 
and Girls 


♦V 


t* 


IK 






. PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..... m\w^ 

| A Thanksgiving Play | 



The Spirit of Thanksgiving is reading his list of names to see if it can be true that two 
poor little girls and their mother have been overlooked. This is a scene from a play in 
Harper’s Book of Little Plays. 


should be simple. An arm chair 
draped with a shawl makes a fine 
throne; a spring cot with a blanket 
or rug makes an Oriental divan. 
Rocks and caves are made of boxes 
piled up and covered with burlaps 
or sacking. A background scene 
can be sketched with charcoal and 
crayons on print or wrapping paper, 
or glazed cambric. 

And Then Comes the Play 
But the play! There are plenty 
of plays printed in books, and written 
Where especially for children. 

to Get They were written by 

Good ‘Plays teachers and authors of 

young people’s stories, and pub¬ 
lished by the school book companies. 


One book can be bought and the 
parts copied for the actors to study. 
There is one “Book of Plays for 
Little Actors” for children of the 
second and third grades. The 
plays are short, in one act, with 
many walking parts for little folks 
too shy to speak, but who thus learn 
to appear before an audience with¬ 
out being frightened. The speeches 
are short, too, and easily learned; 
the plots simple. 

Every child has heard about the 
pussy cat that went to London and 
saw a mouse under the Queen’s 
chair. A dear little play has been 
made of that, with Pussy and her 
mistress in it, the Queen and her 


IJlIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllM 


882 



DRAMATIZATION BY CHILDREN 

A Royal Court 




© Harper Bros. Little Plays 

Here a princess and a brave soldier are bowing before the throne of a king. If you are a little 
boy, don’t you think it would be fun to command the kneeling princess to rise, with a sweep of your 
robe and your very lordliest bow? And if you are a little girl, I know you would love to be the 
pretty fairy in the filmy white dress and wings. 

with his grandson is seen on his 
w r ay to Liberty Hall. The signers 
of the Declaration crowd about a 
long table. People shout behind the 
scenes. The stories of the first 
Thanksgiving, of Washington and 
the cherry tree, and Lincoln and the 
little bird have been made into plays 
and there are stories from history 
and biography, furnishing a great 
number of simple, dramatic plots 
that even little folks can act out. 


Turning History Into Plays 

For children a little older, there 
are Hiawatha and Puritan plays. 
A . In the play of “The 

History on First Fourth of July, 
the Stage the time is 1776, the 


Longer Plays for Older Children 

For older children there are 
longer plays, with more characters. 
The Pied Piper is a beautiful 


883 






t' 


drama in which 
many little and big 
children can act. 
Such stories as that 
of William Tell, 
Nathan Hale, 
Daniel Boone, 
Joan of Arc, Cap¬ 
tain John Smith 
and Pocahontas, 
The Ugly Duck¬ 
ling, Eppie and 
the Miser from 
Silas Marner, and 
others dear to the 
heart of childhood, 
are very fine for' 
acting. You learn 
many things in do¬ 
ing them well. You 
learn the best stor¬ 
ies in literature. 
You learn the 
beauty and force 
there is in good 
English. You learn 
to stand and walk 


PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 

Thanksgiving Day 







hundred of them 
marched in proces¬ 
sion on one occa¬ 
sion. One group 
formed Queen 
Elizabeth and her 
court, another 
the actors of the 
Globe Theater 
and Shakespeare’s 
friends there. Other 
bands were char¬ 
acters from his 
plays — g 1 o o m y 
Hamlet, distracted 
Ophelia, fat Fal- 
staff; limping, 
scowling Richard 
III, wise Portia, 
dancing Perdita 
and the shepherds, 
and many others. 
The smallest chil¬ 
dren of all took the 
parts of Titania, 


fully, to speak 
clearly and with expression. Most 
of the books of plays for children 
have stage directions and descrip¬ 
tions of costumes. Some of the plays 
can be given out of doors, on a lawn, 
in a park or grove. 

And Shakespeare Himself Looked On! 

It may help you to think you 
could give a play in your school or 
home, to hear what others have done. 

Shakespeare In Lincoln Park, Chi- 
Played Before cago, there is a statue of 
Shakespeare Shakespeare, seated in a 

marble chair. On the poet’s birth¬ 
day the children of the Junior Dra¬ 
matic League and classes from pub¬ 
lic and private schools hold a 
pageant around the statue. Fifteen 


& 

© Harper Bros. Little Plays 

This is good old Thanksgiving Day with his p.. n u J AU pmn 
:arving knife. Doesn’t he 1 UCk anQ WDeron 

and their mischie¬ 
vous band of fairy 


pumpkin pie and carving 


make you think of a good dinner with nuts 
and apples and cranberry sauce? He is one 
easily and PTace- Of the Holidays who wanted to rebel against 
' 53 Santa Claus in “The Revolt of the Holidays.” 


♦V 


attendants. It was g 
truly a wonderful spectacle. 

How Fairies Study Literature 

There is a famous school, too, that | 
begins in the kindergarten to train I 
children to act good literature. One j 
year ‘‘A Midsummer 1 
Night’s Dream” was | 
played in the school as- | 
sembly hall. The sev- | 
enth and eighth grade girls designed | 
and made the costumes; the boys | 
did the stage carpentering and man- | 
aging; the principal parts were | 
acted by fifth and sixth grade pu- | 
pils. The kindergarten and first j 
year pupils were fairies. The stage I 
was the open platform, decorated | 
with branches and tissue paper flow- | 


SVfidsummer 
Plight’s 
Dream 
at School 




884 




^iiii!iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiii!iiiiiniit DRAMATIZATION BY CHILDREN liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiM 


I ers. The seats and grottoes were 
| burlap “rocks,” the stars electric 
| lamps. The actors came and went 
| in full view, as Ben Greet’s out-of- 
| door company of English players 
| do. It was all natural and beauti- 
| ful, the children scarcely acting at 
| all, but “making believe,” living the 
| sweetest fantasy of the greatest of 
| all dramatic poets. 

What wonderful things they 
| learned in presenting that play. And 
| do you think one of those who took 
| part will ever forget it? 

Books of Plays 

Here are some of the little books 


of plays that would be a help to you : g 

“The Book of Plays for Little Actors,” | 
published by the American Book Com- § 
pany of New York. Intended for chil- I 
dren of the second and third grades. 

“Children’s Classics in Dramatic g 
Form,” published by Houghton, Mifflin I 
Company, Boston. Five volumes, graded | 
from the first year to the eighth. 

“Harper’s Book of Little Plays,” | 
Harper and Bros., New York. For g 
children of ten to twelve. g 

“The House of the Heart” (10 plays) g 
and “The Silver Thread” and other folk g 
plays, published by Henry Holt & Co., g 
New York. §j 

“Comic Tragedies.” These are the g 
plays written and acted by the little g 
women of the Alcott family, before the g 
age of seventeen. Little, Brown & Co., i 
Boston. • I 


Hamlet’s Instructions to the Players 


Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the 
tongue; but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town- 
crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, 
but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirl¬ 
wind of passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it 
smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated 
fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, 
who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and 
noise: I would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing Termagant; it out- 
herods Herod: pray you, avoid it. 

Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor: suit the 
action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance, that 
you o’erstep not the modesty of nature; for any thing so overdone is from the 
purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 
’twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own 
image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now 
this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but 
make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance 
o’erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be players that I have seen play, 
and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither 
having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have 
so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature’s journeymen had 
made men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably. 


== 

* 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii; PICTURED KNOWLEDGE ..iiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii^ 


I 

1 


5 

i 

= 


I 


= 


I 


E 

5 


= 


The Way the Morning Dawns 


This is the way the morning dawns: | 

Rosy tints on flowers and trees, g 

Winds that wake the birds and bees, 

Dewdrops on the fields and lawns — | 

This is the way the morning dawns. I 

This is the way the sun comes up: | 

Gold on brook and glossy leaves, | 

Mist that melts above the sheaves, I 

Vine, and rose, and buttercup — | 

This is the way the sun comes up. • 1 

This is the way the river flows: 

Here a whirl and there a dance; I 

Slowly now, then like a lance; | 

Swiftly to the sea it goes — 

This is the way the river flows. I 

= 

This is the way the rain comes down: I 

Tinkle, tinkle, drop by drop, | 

Over roof and chimney top; j 

Boughs that bend, and skies that frown — | 

This is the way the rain comes down. 1 



..............in...... 


886 





LESSONS AT HOME 
AND AT SCHOOL 


THE KINDERGARTEN 


The Training of Young Children 

A Visit to a Model Kindergarten 
















■'•, v ■: ' V- 



a 






• • 


The Froebel doorway of the Wheelock School, Boston, “sug¬ 
gests the motto and the spirit of the Kindergarten, ‘Come let us 
live with our children.’ ” 


T HE South American delegate 
was visiting schools. The 
guide was Helen’s mother, an ex- 
Kindergartner. To-day they were 
to visit the Kindergarten. 

They were approaching the 
school. “This is one of the few 
buildings in the State constructed 
especially for Kindergarten use,” 
said the guide. “We build mag¬ 
nificent High School buildings 
with fine equipment for the small 
number of pupils who ever reach 
that stage, but the Kindergarten 
T , , children usually take 

Inadequate . • 

‘Provisions for their chances in any 
Kindergartens r0 om, not needed for 

other purposes. This build¬ 
ing approaches our ideal. It 
houses the Kindergarten and 


first three grades. It is only two 
stories high so that little children 
may avoid the fire and other risks 
of a large structure with many 
stairs. Notice the court yard with 
space for games, and for the out 
of door hand-work in suitable 
weather.” 

The Garden for the Little Gardners 

“I notice also,” said the dele¬ 
gate, “the yard at the side, laid 
out in garden beds, and the vines 
and flowers about the building.” 

“Yes, each division has a com¬ 
munity garden cared for by 
groups of children who are chosen 
each season. Some of the children 
promise to be responsible for the 
summer care of the garden, 
so that there is a goodly 

3s 


887 










































































































































an 


lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillillll^ PICTURED 

display of vegetables and flowers at 
the harvest festival held in the fall. 

As the Great Teacher Had Planned 

“There are also individual beds 
as you will see by noticing the 
children’s names on the cards placed 


KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiii^ 

real children and so came to know j 
their needs and their characteristics. | 
From his sympathetic understand- j 
ing of child life he was able to de- | 
vise a system of child-training and | 
materials for occupation based on § 
laws of growth.” 



The Little Gardeners 


“Each division has a community garden cared for by groups of chil¬ 
dren who are chosen each season.” The hats and sunbonnets were made 
by the children themselves. 


at each bed. 

“Gardening was a part of the 
original Kindergarten plan and 
Froebel himself directed the chil¬ 
dren of Blankenburg in the laying 
out and cultivation of flower beds on 
a pleasant terrace of the town. The 
diagram of the first garden is still 
shown and the terrace is now a play¬ 
ground for the little Thuringians.” 

Over the doorway to the Kinder¬ 
garten wing of the school-building 
was a bas-relief representing Froe¬ 
bel with a group of children. “This 
suggests the motto and the spirit of 
Froebel the Kindergarten,” said 

and the the guide. “Come let us 

Children live w Jth our children.” 

Froebel was a pioneer in child- 
study. He lived and played with 


The Beginning of the Day 

The sound of children singing j 
came through the open door and | 
the visitors hastened to enter. They | 
were in time for the Morning Circle. | 
The children sat around the teacher | 
in a friendly group for the opening j 
hymn and songs. A song of greet- | 
ing was followed by a hymn, “Fath- | 
er we thank thee for the night.” | 
Then came songs of the season and j 
“telling the news.” The news con- | 
cerned the autumn leaves, nuts, | 
flowers seen and enjoyed, and home | 
happenings. This opportunity for | 
conversation furnished a fine lang- § 
uage lesson. | 

A weather record was made by | 
marking the calendar with a yellow | 
spot to denote sunshine, and the chil- | 


♦ ♦ 


V 


888 






THE KINDERGARTEN iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimJC 


Building with the Third Gift 

“The gifts are educational play materials arranged in sequence to meet the needs of the 
ing child.” “Froebel calls his Third Gift—a box of 8-inch cubes—the child’s joy because it 
such wide possibilities for representation.” 


‘Great, wide, wonderful world.’ The 
morning talk gathers up the threads 
of varied experience and makes of 
them a common interest. It is social 
and allows interchange 
of observations. Some¬ 
times a little rhyme or 
poem is taught or a story told. The 
Kindergarten lays stress on these be¬ 
ginnings of literature, believing that 
they will not only awaken the desire 
to master the art of reading, but will 
quicken appreciation of what is best. 

“Practice in story-telling, and the 
study of story literature is an essen¬ 
tial part of a Kindergartner’s train¬ 
ing. Stories are carefully chosen 
from the standpoint of the child’s un¬ 
derstanding, but always with refer¬ 
ence to their artistic value. We do 


/ sunshine comes 


sweetly, sweetly jailing, 

So it driveth the clouds away, 

So it bringeth the lordly day, 

This is the way sunshine comes 
down, 

Sweetly, sweetly falling.” 

“From every point in nature leads 
a pathway to God,’’ quoted Helen’s 
mother. “These morning songs are 
to confirm the child’s feeling of a 
Presence that lives and moves in all 
things. They lead through nature to 
God.” 

“Kindergarten children are en¬ 
couraged to see with their eyes, to 
hear with theii; ears, and to find new 
sources of joy and wonder in the 


Kindergarten 
Aims and 
Jvlethods 


889 





..... PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiini 111111111111 ^ 


not believe in foolish stories, but we 
ardently believe in a wise culture of 
the imagination and in the presenta¬ 
tion of ideals in the form by which 
the soul of the race has been nour- 


interpreted freely by each child. 
Waving trees and flying birds were 
represented, and, anon, the line be¬ 
came a merry dance or a lively skip. 
The children now grouped them- 



In the Kindergarten Circle 


ished. I like to quote our great Eng¬ 
lish story teller, Marie Shedlock. 
‘And so our stories shall contain all 
the essentials for the child’s scrip on 
the road of life, providing the essen¬ 
tials and holding or withholding the 
non-essentials. But, above all, let us 
fill the scrip with gifts that the child 
need never reject, even when he 
passes through the gate of sleep.’ ” 

At the Kindergarten Tables 

Now the children are moving. We 
must see what happens next. 

The circle was broken and each 
child took his little chair, marching 
to the accompaniment of music to his 
place at the Kindergarten table. 

“A most excellent training in or¬ 
der and control,” commented the vis¬ 
itor. 

Some rhythmic movements fol¬ 
lowed, suggested by the piano and 


selves at tables placed socially 
around an open square. The tables 
were of different heights and the 
chairs were suited to the occupants. 
A group of younger children gath¬ 
ered at a long, low seat under a sunny 
window. Their first care was the 
window box. Dried leaves were re¬ 
moved, and watering pots were filled 
to give the geraniums a drink. Large 
building blocks were then found by 
the children. They made a group on 
the floor to build a green house with¬ 
in a walled garden. 

“This was suggested by a trip yes¬ 
terday to the Botanic Garden,” the 
student observer explained. 

Each child joined in the repre- 
Good Train- sentation, some building 
ingin the wall and gateway 

Co-operation anc i 0 t-p ers combining for 

the green house. The number and 
height of window and door spaces 


«i 


890 
















^Illlllllllli;illllllllllllllllllllllll!llll!!!ll|||||||||||||||l!ll||||||||||||||llllllllllllllllll KINDERGARTEN 


Stick Laying 



Some of the children are making designs with sticks while others are making the same designs 
on the blackboard. 


required much calculation and con¬ 
sultation with the observer. 

The older children at the tables 
were provided with bundles of sticks 
varying in length from one to five 
inches. This material was carefully 
distributed by one of their number 
who waited by each recipient until 
the appropriate, ‘‘Thank you/’ had 
been said. 

“I see the Kindergarten trains in 
courtesy and willing service/' re¬ 
marked the visitor. 

“Yes,” said the guide, “It is never 

too early to train for that 
“Best portion of a good man’s life— 

His little nameless, unremembered deeds 
of kindness and of love.” 

Froebel’s Conception of Education 

The children at the tables had also 
visited the Botanic Garden, and the 
suggestion was made that they 
should make pictures of the win¬ 


dows of the green house. One re¬ 
called a “triangle” window over the 
door, and that was outlined by a 
proper selection of sticks. Then the 
door underneath was framed by 
using five-inch and two-inch sticks. 
Other windows, square and long, 
were made by different children and 
panes were introduced, square and 
diamond in shape. Several children 
combined to make a line of windows 
of uniform size for one wall of the 
green house. 

“The beginnings of geometry,” 
said the visitor. 

“Froebel maintained that the use 
of his simple materials and tools 

Roots of made the beginnings of 
the Arts the arts and sciences,” 
and Sciences wa s the answer. “Science 

begins in observation and investi¬ 
gation—and art, in free representa¬ 
tion. 


. .............mu. . . . .mu.. 


891 


:iiiiiiii[iiiiiii[iiiiiiiiiiii[ii[!iii[iiii[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimnniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiin 




























ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiM PICTURED KNOWLEDGE inniiiiiiniiiiiiimnmiiiiiiiiiimnraiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiraiiiimiiiii^ 


"The Kindergarten emphasizes 
sense-training for this reason. A 
seeing eye and a listening ear mean 
an awakened mind. The key note 
to Froebel’s plan is creation. He de¬ 
sires a busy child, and a happy child. 
In one of his commentaries on the 
mother play, Froebel makes a 
plea for the training of the hand 
and also for what he calls a com¬ 
plete activity. He says: 

There is but one means of avoiding 
wrong activity, but rejoice, friends of child¬ 
hood and humanity, for it is a sure pre¬ 
ventive. This preventive is right activity, 
an activity as persistent as it is fit and 
lawful—an activity which is not a body 
activity alone, or yet of the heart or head, 
an activity wherein are blended body and 
soul, feeling and thought. To capacitate 
the child for this pure and complete activ¬ 
ity, we must begin in infancy to exercise 
and discipline hands and fingers. (Mottoes 
and Commentaries of FroebeVs Mother 
Play .—Translated by Susan E. Blow.) 

How the Child Spends His Senses 

"This period of table or group 
work we call the gift lesson. The 


gifts are Froebel’s agencies for de¬ 
veloping, first, the child’s attentive 
Froeleh interest in the world 

Gift around him. The world 

Lessons to be known through 

seeing, touching, handling; and sec¬ 
ond, the power to tell what he 
sees by various means of self-ex¬ 
pression. These means are the sim¬ 
plest play materials, blocks, balls, 
tablets for design, sticks, rings, seeds 
and shells. Since Froebel’s time the 
gifts have been supplemented by 
larger building blocks, by nature 
materials and other useful means of 
self-employment. 

"Shall we look at the doll house 
which is the result of the combined 
effort and interest of all the chil¬ 
dren?” 

In the corner of the room was a 
two-story doll house, made of two 
strong hat boxes. "These boxes were 
contributed by one of the fathers,” 
the guide explained. A sitting room, 


glllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllM 


Stringing Beads 


892 







^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin THE KINDERGARTEN iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiih^ 


bed room, dining room and kitchen 
were furnished with chairs, table 
and other pieces of furniture made 
by the children of spools, boxes, 
cardboard and various materials. 
The Doll Helen, who had put 

a away her sticks, came 

Teacher over to her mother. 

“See what a 
cunning chair 
Charlie made 
out of a match 
box!” she said. 

“And the book- 
case is new. 

That’s Byron’s. 

His mother 
gave him a 
spool box to 
make it, and 
look at the 
stairs and the bed! We all cut 
spreads out of paper and then chose 
the prettiest one. See the fringe on 
this one. Isn’t it lovely!” 

“Then dolls are not excluded 
from the Kindergarten?” asked the 
visitor. 

“How could they be, when the 
children love them so?” said Helen’s 
mother. 

“This is a Polish doll,” Helen ex¬ 
plained. “A lady gave us that. It 
was made by poor sick soldiers in 
the hospital. This is the doll the 
Chinese children play with. And 
don’t you like the Dutch doll and 
the doll in the cradle?” 

“You should hear, ‘This is the 
dolly that I love best,’ and the doll 
lullaby,” said Helen’s mother. 

The Indoor Games 

“The children are now forming a 
ring,” said the Kindergartner, who 
had joined the group. “The games 
are indoors today for the benefit of 
our visitors. We play in the court 


until late in the fall on pleasant 
days.” 

The games chosen by the chil¬ 
dren were varied. Skipping, run¬ 
ning, alternated with such repre¬ 
sentative plays as: 

“Fly little birdies, you must go, 
Soon will come the ice and snow.” 

And a trade 
play: 

“Rap-a-tap and 
tic-a-tac-too, 
This is the way 
to make a 
shoe.” 

A g o o d old 
folk play, 
“Round about 
the village,” 
ended the mer¬ 
ry circle, and 
the children were ready for a quiet 
rest. The sleepy game was played 
to relax tired little muscles and rest 
weary little brains. Only the ticking 
of the clock could be heard in the 
room. 

“This is our silence game,” said 
the Kindergartner. “It helps to 
preserve the rhythm of movement 
and rest. It has always been a part 
of the Kindergarten program. Some¬ 
times we use it after the table work 
when there has been special concen¬ 
tration in thinking out some prob¬ 
lem of construction.” 

Choosing a Game 

When quiet time was over, little 
heads popped up one after another, 
and the sleepy spell was broken. 
Nods of “wide awake” were ex¬ 
changed by the children. 

But still the room was quiet, and 
folded hands on the table waited. 
“We’ll think a little of what to do,” 
said Miss Ella. “You may tell me 
what you would like to do.” 


“This is the Dolly That I Love Best” 



^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniffliiiiHiHiHiiiiiiimiiinniiiiiiM 


893 











^iiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiin PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiimiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii™ 


The Occupation Period 

On the table before her were a 
basket of geranium leaves, a vase of 
cosmos blossoms, a pile of sewing 
cards, a package of drawing paper 
with colored crayons, large pencils, 


motes a love of work. The training 
of the hand Froebel deemed of im¬ 
portance from the very start, in or¬ 
der that what the children produce 
later may have real worth. But the 
fine arts are needed, too, to make 



A Kindergarten ‘‘Telephone Exchange” 


| worsted and needles placed inviting- 
| ly around. 

“When you have thought what 
| you would like to do, you may come 
| up and choose.” 

A veritable choice of delights. 
| There was a moment of pondering. 
| Then one and another came up, and 
| took a sewing card, or a leaf with 
| drawing paper and crayons. Each 
| one whispered his happy choice— 
| “A square window,” “A long win- 
| dow,” “A green leaf,” “A picture of 
| flowers.” 

“This is well named the occupa- 
| tion period,” said the guest. 

“It really occupies. See how 
| alert are eye and hand,” the Kinder- 
| gartner answered. “It gives the best 
| industrial training, because it pro¬ 


life fine. Life is more than meat, | 
and body than raiment. Industrial j 
qig training alone may give | 

Joy of ability to earn a living, | 

Creating but not to live. A child | 

loves beauty. He loves to make | 
something. He loves also to make | 
something beautiful. It may be a | 
wind-swept landscape made by a | 
few dashes of water color, or a daf- j 
fodil blooming on a straight stem, or | 
an autumn leaf outlined and filled in | 
with colored crayons. The picture is j 
crude, to be sure. It must be crude; | 
but the child is the little artist and | 
has the joy of creation. ‘A man may j 
see what he maketh/ said Emerson. | 
The Kindergarten child who draws § 
pictures of what he sees, who colors | 
the leaves he enjoys, who models in | 


&IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


894 









♦> 


THE KINDERGARTEN 


♦♦ 


clay a cup or a vase of pleasing form 
is daily discovering the lesson of the 
Rhodora—that 

“Eyes were made for seeing, 

And beauty is its own excuse for 
being.” 

“In the last song of his Mother 
Play, Froebel tells us what he be¬ 
lieves about this creative power of 
the human being, and what its be¬ 
ginnings in childhood signify. There 
is the book. You would no doubt 
like to read it for yourself. (Mottoes 
and Commentaries of FroebeVs 
Mother Play. D. Appleton and Co.) 
I must return to the children for our 
closing hour has come.” 

A scene of busy activity followed. 
The finished cards were placed on 
the teacher’s table and marked with 
the child’s name. These were later 
put in the work book which each 
child was making to keep as a record 
of his progress. 

“At special times like Easter, Val¬ 
entine’s Day and birthdays of the 
fathers and mothers, the work is 
made into some gift form and taken 
home,” said Miss Ella. “For two or 
three weeks.before Christmas the lit¬ 
tle hands are busy making tokens of 
love for home friends. The Christ¬ 
mas tree is hung with gifts and 

Developing chains and lanterns made 
the Spirit of by the children. The 
Giving Christmas festival is 

shared by mothers and a few fathers 
that are able to come. It is a 
festival of giving, and our children 
know that it is more blessed to give 
than to receive, for they have tried 


I it 


)) 


While we were talking, other chil¬ 
dren with unfinished work had found 
their portfolios and put the cards 
and papers away. These portfolios 
with other properties were kept in 
drawers under the long, low seat 




running around the room. Each | 
child had his own drawer. j 

“Let me show you the contents of | 
their drawers,” said Helen’s mother. | 
“Here are the two boxes of building | 
blocks in frequent use. These are | 
technically called the Third and | 
Fourth Gifts. Sheets of drawing pa- | 
per, squares for cutting and folding | 
are also kept here, as well as a box | 
of paints, and the special tools of the j 
Kindergarten — crayons, pencil, | 
brush, scissors and needles. The in- | 
dividual drawers serve to fix the | 
feeling of responsibility and sense of | 
possession. They must be kept in or- j 
der, and each child learns to find | 
and put away things for himself. | 

Training in Some P arts of the m f- | 

System and terial are still kept in g 

Order bulk, however, and dis- | 

tributed, as you have seen today, for | 

the sake of training in order and | 

courtesy.” | 

The Good-Bye Songs 

In the meantime groups of chil- | 
dren had been in the dressing room | 
and returned with coats, and the | 
boys with hats in hand. “Most of | 
them have learned to dress them- | 
selves,” said Miss Ella. “The big | 
ones help the smaller ones, if there | 
is a refractory button, and all goes | 
well. Now for our good-bye.” 

In a group around the Kinder- | 

gartner the children sang: | 

“Our Kindergarten is over, and we are | 
going home, g 

Good-bye, good-bye, be always kind and J 
true.” i 

“Let’s sing, ‘We’ll all come back j 
tomorrow,’ ” said Little Joe. Many | 

voices began to sing: g 

“Our play is o’er, our work is done, 

Our things are in their places; 

Now to our homes we’ll quickly run, | 
With happy hearts and faces. | 

We’ll say good-bye, but teacher dear, | 
We’ll all come back tomorrow. g 

With cordial handshakes and | 
good-byes to the Kindergartner, the | 


895 







Smiimiiiiiiiiiii....... hi PICTURED KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 


“observing” students and to the 
guests, the children departed. 

The canary was suddenly still and 
the sunshine flooded the silent room. 

“I see that you do not forget the 
small sweet courtesies/’ said the 
delegate. “Now, if you have time, 
will you explain to me a little further 
the ideas which govern your practice 
—the reasons for some of these 
things V* 

The Kindergartner and Her Work 

“Nothing could give me more 
pleasure,” was the response. “The 
Kindergartner’s work is her cause, 
which she serves with the loyalty 
and devotion of a reformer. She 
rejoices in an opportunity to serve 
her cause. The Kindergarten in 
America was fortunate in having for 
its first exponent a woman of rare 
culture and discernment—Miss Eliz¬ 
abeth P. Peabody. She was an un¬ 
wearied advocate of the new system 
of education. She journeyed, wher¬ 
ever people would listen, to preach 
the gospel of Froebel. Through her 
influence, women of culture and in¬ 
sight first responded to the call for 
teachers of the new system. To her 
we owe the standard of work and 
training which has been maintained 
in this country. The early workers 
struggled against the lack, of appre¬ 
ciation and support which always ac¬ 
companies the advocacy of new 
ideas. None could enter the ranks 
from sordid motives. The pioneer 
period was a time of self-denial and 
struggle. There were no pecuniary 
considerations to lure those seeking 
only a means of livelihood. ‘Kin- 
dergartening/ Miss Peabody de¬ 
clared, ‘is not a craft. It is a reli¬ 
gion ; not an avocation, but a voca¬ 
tion from on high.’ 

“You see I know my book,” said 


Miss Ella, with a reminiscent look. 
“We learned that in our training 
school. It gave us the keynote of our 
calling. That belief creates the at¬ 
titude of Kindergartners to their 
work. 

“The first published accounts of 
Froebel and his work we owe to Dr. 
Henry Barnard, our first commis¬ 
sioner of education. In one volume 
of his Journal of Education he made 
a collection of Kindergarten Culture 
Papers. These papers with Miss 
Peabody’s book, published in 1886, 
‘Booh for constituted the first liter- 
‘Parents to ature on the subject in 
R ea< * America. These books 

are still valuable. They have the 
historical value. They help also to 
hold us to the early conception of 
the work of the Kindergarten as a 
service to childhood and humanity. 

“Miss Peabody’s book should be 
studied today by mothers and teach¬ 
ers for its intimate and sympathetic 
understanding of child life. The 
latest important account of Kinder¬ 
garten theory and practice is pub¬ 
lished in a book called The Kinder - 
garten; Reports of the Committee of 
Nineteen, published by Houghton- 
Mifflin Co. The Committee of Nine¬ 
teen was appointed in 1903, by the 
International Kindergarten Union. 
The reports were made by three 
leaders, Miss Susan Blow, Miss 
Patty Hill and Miss Elizabeth Har¬ 
rison. This book is for those who 
wish a philosophical presentation of 
the system. It is of special worth to 
students of education and to the pro¬ 
fession. 

“There are simpler statements of 
Kindergarten principles such as Miss 
Nora A. Smith’s Home Made Kin¬ 
dergarten and Miss Harrison’s 
Study of Child Nature. 


But I am shifting my answer to g 
:*Jllllllllllllllllllllllll!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!llllllllll!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllH 


896 



Nature study is, of course, a prominent feature of kindergarten work and the little 
botanists learn to know, by actual experience, the whole life of the plant. 


den is a place for growing things. 
The function of a gardener is cul¬ 
tivation of the plants. The goal 
for the child is growth, growth in 
wisdom, in stature, and in favor with 
God and man. 

“The teacher’s goal is knowledge 
of childhood and of individual chil¬ 
dren, in order to give the sympa¬ 
thetic guidance born of such knowl¬ 
edge. 

“Froebel was the first of modern 
students of child life. His appeal, 
‘Come, let us live with our children/ 
indicates his method of study. His 
laboratory was a group of children 
in the home with their mothers, or 
in the playground, following him, 


bered, as one of the chief pleasures 
of his boyhood, the invitation to play 
with Froebel, at Liebenstein. We 
saw in Blankenburg the square 
where Froebel and Middendorf, 
gray-haired old men, played with 
the village children. We have notes 
and letters written by Froebel, dur¬ 
ing the winter he spent in Dresden. 
He lived in the family of a friend in 
order that he might try out his gifts, 
and watch their effect on the chil¬ 
dren. The disciples of Froebel, like 
him and like that mother of old, 
blessed above all women, keep all 
these things and ponder them in their 
hearts! 

“In the first picture of his Mother 


gilllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllM THE KINDERGARTEN 


the shoulders of these writers. You 
asked for my statement of underly- 
Lhtle Plants ing theory. To me the 
It Pays aim and practice of the 

to row Kindergarten is defined 
by it name, Child Garden. A gar- 


their beloved friend and leader. 

Pilgrimages to Froebel’s Home 

“When we made the famous Froe¬ 
bel Pilgrimage in 1911, we found in 
Schweina an old man, who remem- 


Planting Bulbs in Pots 


3 


*: 


897 








PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


♦> 
♦ ♦ 



Play book, Froebel shows us a 
mother sitting with her children on 
the bank of a stream. The children 
are playing. One boy has made a 
water wheel, which is merrily turn- 

Children as in g in the running brook. 
Prophets of His brother is watching 
Their Own and thinking. ‘What 

makes it go?’ he is asking himself. 
He is of the thoughtful type, a fu¬ 
ture philosopher, it may be. One lit¬ 
tle girl, vigor¬ 
ous and active, 
is wading in the 
brook, while 
her sister sits 
quietly by the 
mother, content 
to look on. The 
mother watches 
and ponders. 

In each child’s 
play she sees 

the promise of . 

r \ -q . A Play 

a future. But 

no two are the same. Each needs 
special guidance suited to his tem¬ 
perament and needs. The mother 
must watch and study and ponder 
that she may guide wisely. She 
knows one thing, however, which is 
true of every child: He grows and 
develops through his own self-activ¬ 
ity. What he does, what he plays, is 
making him. He must grow in sta¬ 
ture, that is in body. He must grow 
in intelligence. He must also grow 
in favor with God and man, or, to 
use the Kindergarten phrase—he 
must develop right attitudes towards 
his playmates, and towards the world 
which surrounds him. The secret 
of child development is the secret of 
giving full play to all the inner 
promptings to activity. 

“In the Land of the Free” 

“Freedom is necessary to growth. 


This freedom is first physical. The 
baby must kick and play that* his 
limbs may grow strong. The healthy 

The Mother child at home never 
and the keeps still. He runs all 

Why? about the house, touch¬ 
ing, testing, experimenting and ask¬ 
ing questions. The home is the first 
school. It is the school of self-activ¬ 
ity through which mind and body 
grow. The mother is the teacher. 

Her part is to 
guide, to pro¬ 
vide right ma¬ 
terials, and to 
answer the 
many ‘W h y s’ 
asked by an in¬ 
quiring mind. 

“Now, later, 
when the child 
comes into the 
Kindergarten, 
is he any dif¬ 
ferent? Is he 
not a creature still keenly alive and 
eager to know? To require the 
child to sit immobile and perfectly 
still for half an hour is to go con¬ 
trary to the teachings of his* own 
nature. That is why we have fre¬ 
quent changes of position and fre¬ 
quent changes of exercise. A child’s 
energy needs relaxation and new 
channels of expression. The Kin¬ 
dergarten recognizes the fact that 
mind, like body, grows by use. Self¬ 
activity is our method. The little 
child is an eye. He wishes to look 
The Child into everything which 

Is All moves and stirs. He 

Eyes loves to see color and 

note form. Gradually he begins to 
know and to classify objects, as his 
perceptions are trained. 

“We recognize Nature as the first 
great teacher. The glory of Froebel 
is that he founded a school without 


Festival 


♦v 




898 





^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH THE KINDERGARTEN miiiiiiiuiuii™ 


books. The story book of Nature is 
the text book of the Kindergarten. 
Its pages are filled with the songs of 
birds, the humming of bees, and the 
song of the brook. To Kindergarten 
children there are ‘tongues in the 
trees, sermons in stones and good in 
everything.’ They learn their first 
lessons from these things. 

Reading Things Before Books 

“Of what use to master the me¬ 
chanics of reading, until one has 
ideas with which to read? Words 
are barren until life gives them 
meaning. Dr. Montessori says that 
her Italian children, who had burst 
into reading and writing, had little 
interest in the story books brought 
them by kind friends. They could 
call the words, but they were not. 
ready to read. 

“A seeing eye, a listening ear, a 
trained hand and an eager mind— 
these are the preparation the Kin¬ 
dergarten offers for the school arts. 
Interest and attention are funda¬ 
mental forms of self-activity. The 
native instinct of curiosity is the 
child’s incentive to knowledge. It 
is aroused by all that surrounds him, 
about which he wants to know. It 
is satisfied by directing the child’s 
own self-activity into the pathway 
which leads to the answer of his 
many questions. ‘Look,’ ‘Listen,’ 
‘Try again,’ ‘Work it out.’ These 
are good answers to many questions. 
The Kindergarten materials offer 
scope for experiment and investiga¬ 
tion. Sense plays for touch, smell, 
taste, hearing and for quick percep¬ 
tion are often used. 

Avoiding Overemphasis in Arithmetic 

“We do not teach arithmetic in the 
Kindergarten. A knowledge of 
mathematics is not necessary to a 


four year old. Any premature in¬ 
struction arrests development. 

“Mr. Joseph Lee well says in his 
Play in Education: ‘It is true, for 
instance, that the immature hand, 
which might have squandered its 
time on dolls, may be taught to hold 
knitting, and in a year or two al¬ 
most knit. So the imagination that 
sees a cow or a steam engine in what 
really is only a piece of wood can be 
set right, and the child put to work, 

Imagination instead > in studying 
and the the difference between 

Utilities spruce and maple. He 

could thus be made to acquire, in 
three years of the dramatic age al¬ 
most as much practical knowledge on 
that head as a child of ten would 
pick up in ten minutes, but meantime 
the age for the inward realization of 
the family, the trades related to it, 
and other things that really interest 
the child—of obtaining a sympathetic 
insight into his surroundings—will 
have gone by, and left its all im¬ 
portant function unfilled.’ 

“However, we do begin counting 
or numbering and calculation as it is 
called for in the use of materials. 
‘One, two, buckle my shoe’—‘One lit¬ 
tle, two little, three little Indians’—• 
‘This little pig went to market,’ are 
universal favorites. They open the 
door to the world, ‘so full of a 
number of things.’ We are indeed 
happy as kings when we begin to 
grasp this world of quantity. One 
method of grasping it is to know 
what, how much, how many. Some 
of these exercises involve illustration 
of mathematical relations. The pro¬ 
cess is always simple and child-like. 
For instance, we use a home scene. 
Let us take half our blocks for 
mother’s table, and divide the oth¬ 
er half to make chairs for father and 
mother. Again our train of cars is to 


..mi.... 


899 


^iiiiiii!iiiii!ii!iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii PICTURED KNOWLEDGE 


be made from eight cubes. We may 
count out half for the cars and half 
for the engine. Or again, we build a 
tower and transform it into two 
posts, and so on. 

"Froebel’s gifts are educational 


joy, because it offers such wide pos¬ 
sibilities for representation. A whole 
set of toys is contained in this box. 
The magic wand of the child’s con¬ 
structive imagination releases all its 
delights. 



Out of Door Plays—Drop the Handkerchief 


| play materials arranged in sequence 
| to meet the growing needs of the 
| growing child. They are easily 
| handled and lend themselves to 
| mathematical divisions, which give 

| Purpose of simple and fundamen- 
| the Froebel tal number experiences. 
| Gifts Their chief function is 

| to serve as means of self-employ- 
j ment, and self-expression. Every 
| child is by nature a maker and doer. 
| A hill in the sand—a hut of boughs 
| —a tent made from an umbrella— 
| something, he must make. All he 
| needs is material and tools with 
| which to work. 

j "Froebel calls his Third Gift —a 
| box of eight inch cubes—the child’s 


"We attach some importance to | 
the use of these gifts in their order, | 
and to an occasional following of | 
sequence in arrangement of forms. | 
Such guidance in arrangement gives | 
a clue to the labyrinth of experience, | 
and helps children to see things in | 
their proper relations, and to trace | 
causal connections. Free representa- | 
tion is, however, the main purpose of | 
the Froebelian gifts. | 

"The Baroness Marenholtz von | 
Billow, who was Froebel’s first and | 
best interpreter, found the keynote | 

The Child's of his system in the j 
Discovery of phrase: ‘Man is a ere- g 

Himse, f ative being.’ Children j 
must create freely in order to discov- | 


ttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiniiiiiM 


900 








l^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH THE KINDERGARTEN 


er their own powers and to be them¬ 
selves. 

Function of Stories and Poems 

“Another need of childhood, for 
which the Kindergarten provides, is 
the need to know about other people, 
and what they have done. 

“History and literature began 
when the first fathers told their sons 
the traditions and legends of the 
tribe. History and literature begin 
in the same way today. So the Kin¬ 
dergarten program includes a story 
hour. Rhymes, little poems and 
stories foster the interest in the won¬ 
derful world. They quicken the 
feeling of kinship with living things. 
Take, for instance, Rosetti’s verses: 

When father takes the spade to dig, 
Then robin comes along, 

He sits upon a little twig, 

And sings a little song. 

But if the tree be very far, 

He does not sit alone, 

He comes up close to where we are, 
And bobs upon a stone. 

“Such bits of poetry give form to 
language, an increased vocabulary, 
and appreciation of what is good. 
Stories are carefully chosen for their 
literary form, their dramatic quality 
and for their presentation of ideals 
of life, which kindle the desire to 
go and do likewise. It is not safe to 
leave the exercise of the imagination 
to chance. The most lordly of all 
faculties should have direction into 
legitimate channels. We wish to 
make every mind ‘a mansion for all 
lovely forms; the soul a dwelling 
place for all sweet sounds and har¬ 
monies/ 

“Shall we not help to supply 
these forms? Shall we not guide in 
the choice of sounds and harmonies? 

“The story is the mirror which 
shows the child himself. It helps 
him, therefore, to correct his faults. 


iiuiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw 

‘The story is the strengthening bath j 
for mind and judgment/ says j 
Froebel. It helps to a right decision j 
between right and wrong and to | 
good moral choice. The real story, | 
as the children call it, may bind to- | 
gether the children’s experiences, | 
and so serve as a review of the day | 
and an aid to memory. 

“But I am not delivering a lecture | 
on the story. Of what else shall I | 
speak?” 

Play as “Serious Business” 

“Explain to me the purpose of the j 
plays which are carried on in the | 
circle,” said the visitor. “Are they | 
for gymnastic training or for diver- | 
sion? That is, are the plays merely | 
play?” ' | 

“No play should be idle,” was the j 
answer. “BoysTool’and‘roughhouse’ j 
on street corners, because they have | 
no playground and no work shops, | 
because they have not learned how 
to play. Play, according to Froebel, 
is the child’s serious business. Into 
it he puts the earnestness and the ef¬ 
fort which a man puts into good hon¬ 
est work. And remember the man 
also does best to whom his work has 
the zest of play. 

“The playground in every town 
and city is proof of the national con¬ 
viction that there is a connection be¬ 
tween the boy’s play and the man’s 
job. The wise Aristotle had little 
hope for the boy not diligent in his 
play. He does not promise to be 
diligent at anything. Froebel was 
the first to recognize and utilize the 
educational value of play. He saw 
in the child’s make-beleve a means 
<P1ay Insight of understanding. To 
and fly like a bird is to be a 

Sympathy bird. To be a father 
bird or mother bird is to gain inter¬ 
est in bird life. To impersonate is 


.... . ........ 


901 


Ciiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin PICTURED 

| to penetrate the soul of the things 
| represented. Sympathy is awakened 
j and a desire to protect. A new boy 
j had come to a Kindergarten in the 
| country. The first day he was taken 
| by a group of children to see a 
I ground sparrow’s nest in a clump of 
j grass near a rock. The new boy 
| reached out to take an egg. ‘Oh, 
| you mustn’t do that/ protested the 
j others. ‘There’s a baby bird in it 
J and the mother would miss it.’ The 
| man who ‘would needlessly set foot 
| upon a worm’ was not bred in a 
j Kindergarten. 

“The little girl becomes tender by 
1 nursing her dolls. The boy becomes 
| knightly by being a knight. Imita- 
| tion leads to understanding. A wide 
1 range of imitation is necessary to 
1 sympathy with man and bird and 
| beast. 

“Froebel left us with typical plays 
1 which we. have since greatly in- 
] creased and expanded. These plays 
| concern the great relationships of 
| human life—to nature—to man—his 
| work and his institutions. They are 
| means to that growth of which I 
| spoke before. 

“The gymnastic value of Kinder- 
j garten plays you have already recog- 
j nized. Skipping, running, jumping, 
j dancing, rhythmic movements of 
| arms and legs are arranged to give 
I balanced exercise, muscular develop- 
1 ment and control. 

The Dignity of Labor 

“The trade plays, such as the 
1 baker, blacksmith and carpenter, 
| give some wisdom regarding the 
I world’s work, and strengthen the 
1 voice within which whispers: ‘Work 
| waits for me.’ They help towards a 
I proper recognition of the service of 
f all workers and they give dignity to 
1 labor. This attitude towards work 


KNOWLEDGE iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiimini^ 

is also fostered by the hand work, | 
some of which you have seen this j 
morning. 

“The baby loves to do for the sake j 
of doing, but the four year old or | 
the five year old wishes to do some - | 

The Desire thing. He wishes to | 

to produce. A vase in clay, | 

Produce a paper mat for a tea | 

tray, or a chain of seeds—be it what | 
s it may be, it is the child’s own, and j 
he has the joy of the maker. The j 
habit of industry is fostered by | 
breeding the love of work.” 

“One thing remains,” said Helen’s | 
mother, “of which we have not | 
spoken, the highest of all—religion.” | 

Social and Religious Aspects of the 

Kindergarten | 

“Do we need discuss that?” asked | 
Miss Ella. “For the children reli- | 
gion is an atmosphere, not a creed. | 
The religious feeling is stirred by | 
the morning hymn. Miss Peabody | 
calls song the language of spiritual- | 
ity. It arouses what is true and ten- | 
der within the heart. Reverence be- | 
gins in wonder. The wind, the | 
moon, the stars, the meanest flower j 
that blows, these make the pathway | 
to wonder, along which the soul | 
mounts to a vision of the divine. | 

“The social atmosphere of the | 
Kindergarten is the great school for | 
the emotions. In favor with God | 
and man is our ideal. We under- | 
stand the divine through the human. | 
We love to serve each other and so | 
serve the common Father. | 

“In the Kindergarten plays a child | 
learns to surrender his own desires. | 
He learns to look out for the weaker | 
and younger. He finds his happi- | 
ness in the magic of ‘together.’ In | 
the group and table exercises chil- j 
dren learn how to work together, j 
and how to help each other. The | 
public Kindergarten is a true melt- | 


iviiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu .. 


902 





THE KINDERGARTEN 


ing pot of the nations. Here all are 
friends and playmates, not rivals. 
Here all are needed by each one and 
true cooperation is to be found. The 
child garden is the larger family 


where all are brothers and sistors. 

“A true school of citizenship,” 
said the visitor, as he rose to go. 

“The world to be is planted here, 
said Helen’s mother. 


♦j* 


f> = 


tt = 



May Day Festival 


Peter Paul Augustus 


(A Kintcrgartcn Song ) 

Said Peter Paul Augustus: “When I am grown a man, 
Pll help my dearest mother the very best I can. 

I'll wait upon her kindly; she J ll lean upon my arm; 

I'll lead her very gently, and keep her safe from harm. 

e But, when I think upon it, the time will be so long!” 
Said Peter Paul Augustus, “before I’m tall and strong , 

I think it would be wiser to be her pride and joy 
By helping her my very best while Pm a little boy.” 


gillllllillllllilllllllliillli 


903 


♦« 



















-INTHE PAGES OF GOOD BOOKS 
UES THE MAGIC TO INSPIRE OUR 
DREAMS AND THE POWER TO NAME 

those dreams come true* 


3* 


r 

Jr<K 


/. 

JL 














































